The Tank Book - Dorling Kindersley - PDFCOFFEE.COM (2025)

THE TANK BOOK

THE TANK BOOK THE DEFINITIVE VISUAL HISTORY OF ARMOURED VEHICLES

DORLING KINDERSLEY Project Art Editor Katie Cavanagh Project Editor Hugo Wilkinson Senior Designer Stephen Bere Senior Editor Andrew Szudek Design Assistance Steve Crozier, Jane Ewart, Renata Latipova Editorial Assistance Sam Kennedy, Kate Taylor, Zoe Rutland Photographer Gary Ombler Illustrator Phil Gamble Picture Research Sarah Smithies, Nic Dean DK Picture Library Laura Evans, Romaine Werblow Jacket Designer Mark Cavanagh Jacket Editor Claire Gell Jacket Design Development Manager Sophia MTT Producer, Pre-production Nadine King Production Controller Jude Crozier Managing Editor Gareth Jones Managing Art Editor Lee Griffiths Art Director Karen Self Publisher Liz Wheeler Publishing Director Jonathan Metcalf DK INDIA Project Editor Antara Moitra Project Art Editor Vikas Chauhan Editor Nishtha Kapil Art Editors Priyansha Tuli, Meenal Goel Assistant Art Editors Rohit Bhardwaj, Devika Khosla DTP Designers Vijay Kandwal, Bimlesh Tiwary Senior DTP Designers Sachin Singh, Harish Aggarwal Jacket Designer Suhita Dharamjit Jackets Editorial Coordinator Priyanka Sharma Managing Jackets Editor Saloni Singh Pre-production Manager Balwant Singh Production Manager Pankaj Sharma Senior Managing Editor Rohan Sinha Senior Managing Art Editor Arunesh Talapatra THE TANK MUSEUM, BOVINGTON, UK Author and Consultant David Willey, Curator Main Contributor Ian Hudson, Research Assistant Photographer Matt Sampson

Published by Dorling Kindersley Limited in association with The Tank Museum Trading Company Limited First published in Great Britain in 2017 by Dorling Kindersley Limited, 80 Strand, London WC2R 0RL A Penguin Random House Company Copyright © 2017 Dorling Kindersley Limited 2 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3 1 001–291729–Apr/17 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: 978-0-2412-5031-0 Printed and bound in China A WORLD OF IDEAS: SEE ALL THERE IS TO KNOW www.dk.com

Contents Foreword

THE FIRST TANKS: TO 1918 The tank had a variety of historical forerunners, which led to the first operational models. These were followed by the amazing variety of machines designed for different functions that were developed, or were starting to be manufactured, by the end of World War I. Introduction

Earliest Experiments

Leonardo da Vinci’s “Tank”

Mark IV

Tanks of World War I

Renault FT-17

Great Designers: Tritton and Wilson

The First Tank Action

Wartime Experiments

Early Armoured Cars

BETWEEN THE WARS: 1918–1939

WORLD WAR II : 1939–1945

The interwar period was an age characterized

full potential on a huge scale. Armoured vehicles were

by retrenchment and experiment; tanks were

built in their tens of thousands, becoming not only

developed in a number of different countries,

key weapons in land campaigns all around the globe,

and exercises were carried out on how best they

but also symbols of nations’ military prowess.

World War II was the catalyst for the tank to show its

might be used in the world’s newly mechanized armies. One of the outcomes of this was the consolidation of modern tank design.

Introduction

German Tanks: 1939–40

Germany’s Tanks on the Eve of War

Introduction

Allied Tanks: 1939–40

Interwar Experiments

Axis Tanks: 1941–45

A New Kind of Cavalry

Tiger I

Armoured Cars

The Flying Tanks of D-Day

Light Tanks and Tankettes

M3 Stuart

Light Tank Mark VIB

US Tanks: 1941–45

Great Designers: J. Walter Christie

M4 Sherman

Vickers Creates a Global tank

Engine Change Behind Enemy Lines

Medium and Heavy Tanks

UK and Commonwealth Tanks: 1941–45

Vickers Medium Mark II

Soviet Tanks: 1941–45

T-34/85

T-72

134

Great Designers: Mikhail Koshkin

102

Berlin Brinkmanship

138

Preparing for Battle

104

Key Manufacturers: General Dynamics

140

German Tank Destroyers

106

Centurion

142

Allied Tank Destroyers

110

Tanks of the NATO Alliance

146

M18 Hellcat

112

Leopard 1

150

Engineering and Specialist Vehicles

116

Tanks of the Non-aligned World

154

Experimental Vehicles

118

Tank Destroyers

158

The Tank in Peace and War

120

Cougar

162

Armoured Cars and Troop Carriers

122

Flame-throwing Tanks

166

Armoured Reconnaissance Vehicles

168

Tracked Armoured Personnel Carriers

170

The Soviet Endgame

174

Tracked Infantry Fighting Vehicles

176

Wheeled Troop Carriers

180

Anti-tank Defences

184

Engineering and Specialist Vehicles

186

CVR(T) Family

188

THE COLD WAR: 1945–1991 The rival power blocks of East and West built huge fleets of main battle tanks supported by a range of other armoured vehicles, but the Cold War never became “hot”, and only some of the tanks saw service in smaller conflicts. Introduction

128

Armour on Wheels

190

Tanks of the Communist Bloc

130

Scorpion CVR(T)

192

POST-COLD WAR: AFTER 1991

REFERENCE

As world politics adjusted to the end of the Cold War,

Based on the three key elements of mobility,

a new generation of lighter vehicles were designed

firepower, and protection, the tank changed the

for asymmetric and counter-insurgency warfare. However,

way land wars were fought.

Cold War tank fleets were also given a new lease of life with upgrades, and some new tank designs were built, as conflicts around an unstable world showed the continuing utility of the tank.

Evolution of the Tank

230

Tank Engines

232

Tracks and Suspension

234

Firepower

236

Introduction

198

Protection

238

Counter-insurgency Vehicles

200

Anti-tank Weapons

240

Buffel

204

Uniforms and Protective Clothing

242

The Logistics of Tank Deployment

208

GLOSSARY INDEX ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

244 248 255

Tracked Troop Carriers

210

Wheeled Troop Carriers

212

Tracks on the Ground

216

Post-Cold War Tanks

218

M1A2 Abrams

220

Key Manufacturers: BAE

226

Army Games

228

Foreword The tank is now over 100 years old – but the concept it embodies has been an aim and desire of the fighting man for centuries. Protection against enemy weapons, manoeuvre across the battlefield, and a means of attacking the enemy using firepower are three common themes to all who have had to fight. The tank was an answer to a specific military problem in World War I – how to bring manoeuvre back to the static battlefield that had developed on the Western Front. A number of countries looked at the use of a mechanical means to bring movement back and achieve breakthroughs in battle, but it was the British in September 1916 who first employed the tank as a battering ram, with tracks to cross broken ground and crush barbed wire and guns to fire on enemy positions to allow their infantry to advance. By the end of World War I, tanks had been developed into many forms, yet after the war some senior military figures wished to dispose of all tanks as they saw them as a one-off – an aberration only needed for the unique conflict of the Western Front. The interwar years saw a period of testing and development of the tank, as military powers sought to discover how it might best be used as a weapon, and it was viewed by some as a key player in the move from traditional forces on foot and horse to fully mechanized

units. Other armoured vehicles were built to accompany tanks into action – and a number of these vehicle types, such as engineer variants, armoured personnel carriers, and armoured cars, are also represented in this book. The potential of the tank as a new weapon was seen in a number of minor conflicts in the interwar period, and different conclusions were drawn by different powers. Guns increased in size, as did armour thickness, but only with the surprising success of the German tank arm in 1939–40 did the potential of the tank become evident to all. Despite the focus placed on the early German victories, with their use of tanks in large encircling actions and their later production of a relatively small number of expensive, massive, and technologically advanced designs, it was the huge efforts in the US and Russia to produce basic but serviceable vehicles that swung the balance in World War II tank warfare. The end of World War II caused another round of doubts over the continued utility of the tank. If massproduced, hand-held, hollow-charge anti-tank weapons such as the Bazooka or Panzerfaust, fired by a single soldier, could disable a tank, surely they were too vulnerable? Similar worries arose following the use of guided anti-tank missiles in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 and fears over the potential use of attack helicopters against tanks during the Cold War. Top attack weapons

“Tanks come in two forms: the dangerous, deadly kind and the ‘liberating’ kind.” ROBERT FISK, JOURNALIST

and tandem warheads further exposed the vulnerability of tanks in the early 2000s, but technology and tactics have helped the tank adapt to the new threats. The effective life of the tank has been increased with new types of armour, such as laminates; increased firepower using long rod penetrators (dense metal darts); gas turbine or supercharged diesel engines to increase mobility; and defensive aid suites to disrupt or destroy incoming projectiles. Advances such as miniaturization and unmanned vehicles may come in the future, but currently whilst a new generation of tanks is planned or beginning production, many older tanks are being upgraded to again find a place on the front line.

The adaptability of the tank – and its powerful presence – means it will continue to find its way on to the modern battlefield – wherever that may be. As this book shows, the tank has existed in many forms that have always reflected the technologies available, the experiences of warfare, and the expectations of how warfare might develop – along with the often overlooked but fundamental capacity to build complex armoured vehicles, and the money to do so. Amongst these pages will also appear the essential, some would say paramount, factor in the success or failure of tanks in warfare – the crew.

DAVID WILLEY curator, the tank museum

To 1918

THE FIRST TANKS

T H E F I R ST TA N KS . 1 3

THE FIRST TANKS At the beginning of the 20th century the internal combustion engine and the tracked tractor made the prospect of mobile, armoured firepower on the battlefield realistic for the first time. World War I provided the impetus. The earliest successful tank development took place in Britain. u French tanks on parade Fosters were contracted to build the A battalion of Renault FT-17s leads the victory parade on first landship, nicknamed “Little Bastille Day in Paris, 1919, to celebrate the end of World War I. Willie”, in July 1915, although a superior design called “Mother” was selected by the Army in February 1916. The first tank attack took place on the September 15, 1916, at Flers-Courcelette. Of the 49 tanks assigned, only nine reached the German lines, but the new weapon created a sensation in Britain. Field Marshal Haig immediately ordered 1,000 more, and work began on improvements. The first French tanks saw combat in April 1917. They were not as capable at crossing trenches as British vehicles, but they were well armed. The most common French tank, the Renault FT (see pp.24–27), was first used in May 1918. It was the first tank to have a top-mounted turret capable of turning a full 360 degrees. 3,177 were ordered during the war. The biggest shortcoming of these tanks was their poor reliability. Mechanical breakdowns put more out of action than enemy fire ever did, and availability dropped dramatically over multiple-day attacks. Of the 580 British tanks used at Amiens on August 8, 1918, only 145 were available the next day. Nonetheless, tanks played a greater and greater role as the war continued. During the Allied Hundred Days Offensive of August – November 1918, tanks were a vital part of the combined arms warfare that led to victory.

“ We heard strange throbbing noises, and lumbering slowly towards us came three huge mechanical monsters such as we had never seen before.” BERT CHANEY, BRITISH ARMY SOLDIER, 1916  A German propaganda poster of World War I announces: “We’re beating them – and investing in War Bonds!”

Key events r 1902 The Simms Motor War Car, complete with armoured hull, pom-pom, and machine-guns, is demonstrated. r 1906 Charron, Giradot, et Voigt car with Guye turret and Hotchkiss machine-gun is tested in France. r 1912 Two Italian armoured cars are used in Libya during the Italo-Turkish War – the first to see action. r August 1914 The French Minister of War orders 136 armoured cars. The first enters service a month later. r February 1915 The British Admiralty Landships Committee is formed. r July 1915 “Little Willie” is ordered from Fosters. It moves for the first time on September 9, just five weeks later. r January 1916 “Mother” is completed, just three months after it was designed. r February 1916 Mark I tanks are ordered by the British Ministry of Munitions; Schneider CA-1s are ordered by the French Ministry of War. r September 15, 1916 At the Battle of Flers-Courcelette, tanks first see action.

u The Battle of Cambrai British Mark IV tanks were the first to penetrate German lines at Cambrai, in 1917. Here, members of the Royal Navy manoeuvre a tank over a trench.

r April 24, 1918 The first tank-ontank battle takes place at VillersBretonneux, between a German A7V and British Mark IVs.

1 4 . T H E F I R ST TA N KS

Earliest Experiments For centuries soldiers have wished for machines that could cross a battlefield while remaining impervious to enemy fire. The tank that was developed in the early 20th century was a combination of armour protection, internal combustion engine, and tracks. Attempts to bring all of these to the battlefield were not new, but what changed in 1915 and 1916 was the way they were combined. Little Willie proved this concept could work, whereas Mother demonstrated the most suitable design.

Wheels aided steering

Huge front wheels

Hull

u Hornsby Tractor Date 1909 Country UK Weight 8.6 tonnes (9.5 tons) Engine 6-cylinder petrol, 105hp Main armament None

Originally powered by a 60hp kerosene engine, this was the first tracked vehicle to be used by the British Army. The tracks had replaceable wooden blocks to reduce wear on the metal components. Although the Hornsby was used only for towing artillery, the experience of operating tracked vehicles inspired early work on tanks.

l Pedrail Machine Date 1915 Country UK Weight 25.4 tonnes (28 tons) Engine 2 x Rolls-Royce petrol, 46hp each Main armament None

u Tsar Tank

The wheels on this vehicle were intended to be large enough to crush battlefield obstacles and prevent the tank from getting bogged down. However, during testing in 1915 the smaller back wheel got stuck in the soft ground. The tank was abandoned at the site and scrapped in 1923.

Date 1914 Country Russia Weight 40.6 tonnes (44.8 tons) Engine 2 x Sunbeam petrol, 250hp each Main armament Unknown

Pedrail wheels were an early form of all-terrain track. During 1915, the British produced several designs that made use of these wheels, in the hope they would provide the answer to conditions on the Western Front. However, they were soon superseded by continuous track systems.

Rear lamp

Riveted chassis

r Little Willie Date 1915 Country UK Weight 16.3 tonnes (17.9 tons) Engine Daimler petrol, 105hp Main armament None Little Willie was originally fitted with American Bullock tracks. When these proved unsuccessful, the task of replacing them was given to William Tritton, an agricultural machinery expert. The vehicle’s design meant it could not cross the widest trenches, but the engine, wheels, and Tritton’s tracks were successful and were retained.

Continuous tracks Rear wheels

EARLIEST EXPERIMENTS . 15

Elevated nose

u Mother

This vehicle demonstrated the iconic rhomboid design that gave British tanks their mobility. The high nose allowed the tank to cross tall Weight 28.4 tonnes (31.4 tons) obstacles and pull itself out of trenches if Engine Daimler petrol, 105hp it toppled forward. The track design forced the Main armament 2 x QF 6-pounder armament into sponsons. Its lack of suspension Hotchkiss L/40 guns meant a rough ride for the eight-man crew. Date 1916 Country UK

r Holt 75 Gun Tractor Date 1918 Country USA Weight 10.7 tonnes (11.8 tons) Engine Holt 4-cylinder petrol, 75hp Main armament None

The Holt 75 was the Allies’ standard heavy artillery tractor, with 1,651 delivered between 1915 and 1918. Poor ground conditions were not confined to the battlefield, meaning that tracked vehicles such as this were vital for hauling artillery, supply trains, and other essentials.

Front wheel used for steering Riveted armour

Engine exhaust cover

Canvas canopy

Leonardo da Vinci’s “tank” In 1482, artist and inventor Leonardo da Vinci moved from Florence to Milan and bid for the patronage of Milanese nobleman Ludovico Sforza. He drew out some ideas in his sketchbooks, and his “war car” design – seen here alongside another weapon design – is regarded as one of the precursors of the tank.

KEY ELEMENTS Da Vinci wrote to Sforza, “I can make armoured cars, safe and unassailable, which will enter the closed ranks of the enemy… behind these our infantry will be able to follow quite unharmed”. The idea of an armoured battle car dates back to antiquity, and Da Vinci drew inspiration from this, combining

three elements – firepower (cannons firing from loopholes), protection (wooden and metal walls), and mobility (four men turning large cranks to power the wheels). The design looks surprisingly modern in shape, with angled surfaces to deflect incoming projectiles. However, the technology of the era would not have supported practical construction, and modern recreations of the design have shown that it could only have moved on a very flat surface, something unlikely to have been found on contemporary battlefields. Leonardo da Vinci’s sketch of a “war car” was among the early explorations of the idea of a land weapon combining armour, mobility, and firepower.

1 8 . T H E F I R ST TA N KS

Mark IV More Mark IVs were made than any other British tank during World War I. Although it looked similar to the earlier Mark I, it featured improvements including an armoured fuel tank at the rear, and thicker 12mm (0.5in) frontal armour to protect against armour-piercing bullets. The sponsons housing the guns on each side could be pushed inside the tank to allow transportation by train, unlike those on the Mark I, which had to be removed.

THE MARK IV made an impact at the Battle of Cambrai in November 1917, the first effective massed tank attack. Over 400 tanks were moved at night by rail to the quiet front line at Cambrai, and launched an assault, cutting deep into the REAR VIEW German Hindenburg line. The tank was made in “male” and “female” versions: males carried two 6-pounder guns and three machine-guns, while females had five machine-guns. Female tanks were considered more useful, as machine-gun fire was effective in pinning the enemy while friendly troops advanced; male tanks also had to stop to allow the 6-pounder gunner to aim. After April 1918, “hermaphrodites” with one male and one female sponson were built.

SPECIFICATIONS Name

Tank, Mark IV

Date

1917

Origin

Production

Approx 1,220

Engine

Daimler/Knight straight six, 105hp

Weight

28.4 tonnes (31.4 tons)

Armament (male)

2 x 6-pounder QF guns; 3 x .303 Lewis machine-guns

Armament (female)

5 x .303 Lewis machine-guns

Crew

Armour thickness

12mm (0.5in) Loader

Gunner

Commander

Training vehicle

Gearsman Gearsman

Loader

Gunner

Driver

After World War I, this Mark IV male tank was given to Whale Island, a Royal Navy establishment in Portsmouth, UK. Many gunners for tanks were trained here, as naval personnel were highly experienced at firing weapons from moving platforms.

MARK IV . 19 Commander and driver’s cab

Lewis gun The Mark IV was equipped with a Lewis machine-gun in the front ball mount, and one in each sponson. The Lewis was selected partly for its compact magazine.

Tactical number

THREE-QUARTER VIEW

6-pounder gun in sponson

Vehicle number Each tank was given a unique four-digit number – usually painted on the rear side – that stayed with the vehicle throughout its life.

20 . T H E F I R ST TA N KS 4

EXTERIOR

The Mark IV clearly shows the riveted construction of the early tanks – the armour plates were hot-riveted or bolted to a metal framework. The construction meant there were numerous small gaps that allowed bullet “splash” to enter. Crews were issued with masks to protect their faces from hot metal splinters. 1. Tactical number 2. Driver’s vision port (closed) 3. Track tensioner 4. Male sponson with 6-pounder gun 5. Sponson ball machine-gun mount (without gun) 6. Location of final drive 7. Track plates 8. Ventilation louvres 9. Rear escape hatch 10. Towing eye

MARK IV . 21

INTERIOR

The Mark IV’s Daimler 105hp engine was positioned in the middle of the same compartment as the crew, creating a great deal of heat, fumes, and noise. The tank’s lack of suspension and seating meant that the crew also had a rough ride – when not in action, the gunners would often ride on top or walk beside the tank.

11. Starboard side 6-pounder gun breech 12. 6-pounder ammunition stowage 13. Machine-gun ammunition stowage 14. Oil tank to lubricate secondary gears 15. Secondary gear levers 16. Engine 17. Oil filler cover 18. Differential housing 19. Front commander and driver’s positions 20. Vision port lever 21. Steering lever 22. Front machine-gun ball mount (without gun) 23. Brake pedal 24. Clutch pedal 25. Differential lock lever

22 . T H E F I R ST TA N KS

Tanks of World War I Tanks were first used on September 15, 1916. Between then and the Armistice of November 11, 1918, Britain, France, and Germany all developed tanks. Britain’s heavy tanks, which had tracks around their entire bodies, were adapted for crossing trenches in support of infantry, and the faster Medium Whippet was developed to support cavalry in more open country. As well as a small number of heavier vehicles, the French used masses of light FT tanks in 1918. Germany built only a small number of A7Vs, relying on captured British Mark IVs instead.

u Mark I Date 1916 Country UK Weight 28.4 tonnes (31.4 tons) Engine Daimler petrol, 105hp Main armament 2 x QF 6-pounder Hotchkiss L/40 guns

r Schneider CA-1 Date 1917 Country France Weight 13.5 tonnes (14.9 tons) Engine Schneider 4-cylinder petrol, 60hp Main armament 75mm Schneider Blockhaus gun

The Mark I was made of armour plate up to 12mm (0.5in) thick. Of the 150 built, half were Male (shown here) and half Female – the latter replacing each of the Male’s 6-pounder guns with two .303 Vickers machine-guns. The tank had a crew of eight, including four for driving and steering.

“Sabot” for crushing barbed wire

The first French tank to see service, the six-man Schneider was based on the Holt tractor. Its 75mm gun was offset to the right, limiting its field of fire. Four hundred were built, but took heavy losses when they first saw action on April 14, 1917. They struggled to cross trenches, but did better in the advances of 1918.

6mm (0.2in) armour Riveted hull armour

75mm Mle 1897 main gun

l St Chamond Date 1917 Country France Weight 23 tonnes (25.3 tons) Engine Panhard Levassor 4-cylinder petrol, 90hp Armament Main 75mm Mle 1897 gun

Overhang for crushing obstacles

 Mark IV Date 1917 Country UK Weight 28.4 tonnes (31.4 tons) Engine Daimler petrol, 105hp Main armament 2 x QF 6-pounder 6-cwt Hotchkiss L/23 guns The Mark IV was an improvement on Britain’s earlier tanks. It was better armoured and its guns and sponsons were modified to improve mobility. Also, its petrol tanks were larger, armoured, and were vacuum- rather than gravity-fed. Over 1,200 were built, seeing action from June 1917 until the end of the war.

The eight-man St Chamond first saw combat in May 1917. Like the Schneider, it was based on the Holt tractor and had an overhang to crush obstacles – but this also made it prone to getting stuck in trenches. Four hundred were built, and proved useful as assault guns in the open warfare of 1918.

 A7V Sturmpanzerwagen Date 1918 Country Germany Weight 30.5 tonnes (33.6 tons) Engine 2 x Daimler petrol, 100hp each Main armament 5.7cm MaximNordenfelt gun

Exhaust pipe and silencer

Germany built just 20 A7Vs, based on the Holt tractor. It had a crew of 18, which operated six machine-guns and a 57mm gun. The driver sat at the top and could drive in either direction. It entered service in March 1918, but saw less action than Germany’s captured British tanks.

Engine compartment ventilation louvre 5.7cm MaximNordenfelt gun

 Medium Mark A Whippet Date 1918 Country UK Weight 14.2 tonnes (15.7 tons) Engine 2 x Tylor petrol, 45hp each Main armament 3 x .303 Hotchkiss Mark I machine-guns

Two 4-cylinder Daimler engines

Intended as a fast tank, the three-man Whippet could reach 13km/h (8mph). Each track had its own engine, and steering was controlled by adjusting the two throttles. Whippets were first used in March 1918 and played a significant role in the open warfare of the final months of the war.

37mm main gun

Two Tylor petrol engines

r Renault FT-17 Date 1918 Country France Weight 6.5 tonnes (7.2 tons) Engine Renault 4-cylinder petrol, 35hp Main armament 37mm Puteaux SA 18 L/21 gun

White/Red/White Allied recognition mark

The FT was the first tank to have the nowstandard layout of engine at the rear, crew at the front, and a fully rotating turret. Armed with either a Hotchkiss machine-gun or a 37mm cannon, it played a major role in the French victories of 1918. It was widely exported, and many were still in use in 1940. Over 3,000 were built.

Tail for managing trench crossings Length sufficient for crossing German trenches

Rear drive sprocket

Vertical spring suspension

l Mark V Date 1918 Country UK Weight 29.5 tonnes (32.5 tons)

Metal tracks

Engine Ricardo petrol, 150hp Main armament 2 x QF 6-pounder 6-cwt Hotchkiss L/23 guns The Mark V was similar in armament and speed to its predecessors, but it had a new epicyclic gearbox that enabled it to be driven by one man. It played a key role in the Allied victory in 1918, and saw postwar service in Ireland, Germany, and Russia. Four hundred were produced.

Road wheels contained in hull

24 . T H E F I R ST TA N KS

Renault FT-17 The Renault light tank was developed when General Estienne, father of the French tank force in the First World War, asked Louis Renault to design a light two-man tank that could support infantry in mass attacks. Renault at first declined as he thought his company lacked experience in such matters, but when asked again in the summer of 1916, he changed his mind and took on the project.

THE RENAULT was essentially a tapered metal box with an engine at the rear and a crew (commander and driver) at the front. It had the very first fully rotating turret, which also had a small dome that could be opened and tilted to ventilate the turret. The armour-plated hull acted as its chassis, and the Renault 35hp engine and gearbox provided five gears (four forward and one reverse). The tank could reach speeds of just under five miles an hour on the road and had a range of 34km (22 miles). Its small size and weight of just over 6 tonnes (7 tons) meant the tank was easily transportable by lorry. REAR VIEW The tank first saw action in May 1918, and two months later 408 broke through the German front at Soissons, although the French cavalry failed to capitalize on their success. It then evolved into a number of variants, and saw service with the US Army in World War 1 before being sold to many other nations after the war. France still had ten battalions of Renaults in service in September 1939.

SPECIFICATIONS Name

Renault FT-17

Date

1917

Origin

France

Production

3,950

Engine

Renault 4-cylinder petrol, 35hp

Weight

6.5 tonnes (7.2 tons)

Main armament

37mm Puteaux SA 18 (shown here) or 8mm Hotchkiss Mle 1914

Secondary armament

None

Crew

Armour thickness

8–16mm (0.3–0.6in)

Engine Commander Driver

R E N A U LT F T- 1 7 . 2 5

37mm Puteaux gun Engine access covers

Driver’s hatch

Metal tracks

Leaf spring fitted to side girder

THREE-QUARTER VIEW

The first modern tank With its engine in the rear and crew positioned in the front beneath a fully-rotating turret containing the tank’s main weapon, the FT-17’s configuration was highly influential. It remains the standard layout for tanks today.

First Company insignia The number 1 in the flaming circle indicates that this tank was in the first company of its unit.

Ace of spades The ace of spades insignia means that this tank belonged to the first Section of its Company – which in this case was the first company of its unit.

26 . T H E F I R ST TA N KS 2

EXTERIOR The Renault improved many of the shortcomings of the first French tanks that went into combat. The large front wheel with wooden inserts enabled it to climb in and out of shell holes, and the detachable “tail” extended its trench-crossing ability. Also, the turret had a small dome that served as a cupola and could be opened for ventilation.

1. Serial number 2. Idler wheel 3. Spring to tension top roller rail 4. Driver’s hatch 5. Paired suspension wheels 6. 37 mm Puteaux gun and recuperator 7. Engine cover lock 8. Exhaust silencer 9. Rear drive sprocket and top roller rail support 10. Drive sprocket 11. Front towing eye 12. Starting handle 13. Detachable rear tail 4

R E N A U LT F T- 1 7 . 2 7

INTERIOR As a light tank, the FT-17 had to keep weight down, and it did so partly by being extremely compact. This meant that the crew had to endure unusually cramped conditions; the commander sat on a canvas sling or folding seat, and the driver made do with a floor cushion. The entire crew was surrounded by ammunition stowage and had very poor vision when the hatches were closed; the view ports were simply slits in the armour. The tank’s armour was also minimized, being 16mm (0.6in) on the front, but only 8mm (0.3in) on the sides.

14. Commander’s hatch 15. Turret interior, showing ammunition stowage racks 16. Engine compartment 17. Vision ports 18. Turret traverse lock 19. Driver’s position 20. Engine temperature guage 21. Engine control pedals 22. Carburettor control lever 23. Gear lever

28 . T H E F I R ST TA N KS

Great designers

Tritton and Wilson Sir William Tritton beside his bridgecarrying tractor

WILLIAM TRITTON JOINED the agricultural machinery manufacturers Fosters of Lincoln in 1905 as General Manager. He had a background in pump manufacture and general engineering, and helped Fosters promote its new General Purpose agricultural tractor in South America. While at Fosters, he worked with David Roberts in creating a tracked engine to be exported to the Yukon in Canada. Roberts later sold his track patents to the Holt company in the US. Tritton also promoted the petrol Sir William Tritton engine tractor, and just before (1875–1946) World War I, both a 40bhp and a 105bhp Foster Daimler tractor were marketed. The outbreak of war brought an order for 97 of the huge new tractors to pull naval siege guns. One of the tractors, OHMS No. 44, was adapted to carry a

After years of stalemate on the Western Front, the Allies finally pierced the German lines in 1917, using an invention that dismayed the enemy – the tank. Designed and constructed in secret, it was the brainchild of two British engineers, William Tritton and Walter Wilson.

4.5m (15ft) bridge, which was slung under its main framework and pushed forward to cross a trench. The experiment was abandoned, but Fosters became known to the authorities for their innovation and speedy vehicles. In February 1915, Winston Churchill established the Landships Committee to promote mechanical answers to the stalemate on the Western Front. Fosters were approached to start work on one of the early ideas – a big wheel to roll across the fields of barbed wire that Walter Wilson protected the German trenches. (1874–1957) This project was soon cancelled, but in July 1915, following demonstration of a Holt tractor, the Ministry of Munitions placed an order with Fosters for an experimental tracked armoured machine. Design work began on August 2, building began on August 11, and the vehicle was first driven on September 8 – an extraordinary speed of manufacture by anyone’s standards. Only in late August did Tritton hear from the War Office that the machine should be capable of crossing a 1.5m (5ft) wide trench and mounting a 1.4m (41⁄2ft) parapet, which was beyond its capabilities. As work continued on the No. 1 Lincoln machine (or “Little Willie” as she was later called), Lieutenant Walter Wilson began building a new vehicle with Tritton’s assistance. Walter Wilson, a Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve officer, had designed a car and a lorry before the war. On joining the Mark IV tank at the front Canadian troops pose atop a Mark IV tank in 1918. The wooden beam was placed under the vehicle’s tracks when it was stuck in mud.

A top-secret design Tritton’s prototype tank, “Little Willie” (see pp.14–15), was kept under wraps during trials to maintain secrecy. It was the first ever completed tank prototype.

Royal Naval Air Service team that was working on solutions to trench warfare, he realised that there was a problem with Little Willie’s shape. His solution was the new rhomboidal design that is now so familiar – that of the classic World War I tank, complete with tracks looped around its entire body. He also designed the sponsons that housed the tank’s guns. On September 26, a wooden model of the tank was approved, and the new prototype, called “Mother”, was built in just 99 days. Wilson was sent to the Metropolitan Carriage and Wagon Company, near Birmingham, to supervise the manufacture of Mark I tanks – 125 of which were ordered from Metropolitan and 25 from Fosters, which had a much smaller manufacturing capacity. At Metropolitan, Wilson continued designing and was influential in having the Ricardo engine approved for the Mark V tank. This also had Wilson’s own new gearbox, which enabled the tank to be driven by one man. Tritton, meanwhile, had started design on a new, faster tank called the Tritton Chaser, which was accepted into service as the Medium Mark A tank, or Whippet. The Chaser had two Tylor engines, one to power each track, and was intended as a

TRITTON AND WILSON . 29

“And there, between them, spewing death, unearthly monsters.” 2ND LIEUTENANT HERMANN KOHL, 1916

World War I posters French and Spanish posters praise the might of Tritton and Wilson’s invention.

cavalry support weapon. Tritton also created a design for a 91-tonne (100-ton) tank called the Flying Elephant, and designed and built another new tank called the Hornet – 6,000 of which were ordered, but only a few of which had been completed by the end of the war. Both Wilson and

Tritton had successful post-war engineering careers and were named by the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors as the real designers of the first successful tank. It was a weapon that changed the war and the nature of warfare forever. Medium Mark C Tritton’s Medium Mark C tank, or Hornet, was produced at the end of the war – a successful design that was too late to see any action.

Engineering victory Workers assemble a line of Mark IV tanks at Fosters in Lincolnshire, UK, in 1917. An improved version of the Mark I, this was the tank that broke the German lines in 1917.

The first tank action The Mark I, seen here in September 1916, was first used at Flers-Courcelette during the Battle of the Somme. Arguments had raged around when to use the first tanks – wait until there were considerable numbers available to make an overwhelming impact, or use what was ready in the pressing circumstances of the time. The British Commander in Chief, Field Marshal Haig, was keen to see some success on the Somme before the winter set in, and he also knew that attacking could relieve the French forces at Verdun. Haig decided to try out the new tanks and assembled two companies to attack; 49 tanks were ready, although the men barely had time to scout the ground before they went into action.

The tanks were spread along a section of the British line – and they were hardly a success. Only nine made it to or across the German front line, some fired on their own men, some were hit by the British barrage, and many broke down or ditched. Nevertheless, despite the poor performance overall, there were enough successes by certain tanks to allow Haig to claim that “wherever the tanks advanced we took our objectives, and wherever they did not advance we failed”. He had seen their potential and ordered 1,000 more. A Mark I tank designated C15 at the battle of Flers-Courcelette, the first ever tank action, on September 15, 1916.

32 . T H E F I R ST TA N KS

Wartime Experiments The end of the fighting in November 1918 came as a surprise to Allied commanders. They had been planning to use a large number of tanks and armoured vehicles during 1919, many of which already existed in small numbers and were being prepared for combat. At the end of the war, the British were developing a wide range of specialist armoured vehicles, including artillery carriers, bridgelayers, infantry carriers, supply tanks, and repair vehicles. Only a few of these saw service, however.

r Mark V** Date 1918 Country UK Weight 34.5 tonnes (38.1 tons) Engine Ricardo petrol, 225hp Main armament 6 x .303 Hotchkiss Mark I* machine-guns

Low tracks

u Gun Carrier, Mark I

Mechanically based on the Mark I, the Gun Carrier was designed to carry an artillery piece and crew in order to provide fire support to advancing infantry. Fifty were built and saw some action in their intended role, but they were mainly used to carry supplies. In 1918 they were permanently converted for this function.

Date 1917 Country UK Weight 34.5 tonnes (38.1 tons) Engine Daimler petrol, 105hp Main armament None, but carried 60-pounder or 6in artillery piece

To cross wider German trenches, the British used fascines or cribs, and designed new, longer tanks. The Mark V* was essentially a stretched Mark V, while the Mark V** featured a more powerful engine and redesigned track layout.

Side door

 Mark VIII Date 1918 Country UK, USA Weight 37.6 tonnes (41.4 tons) Engine Ricardo petrol, 300hp Main armament 2 x QF 6 pounder 6-cwt Hotchkiss L/23 guns

The Mark VIII “International” was an Anglo-American design intended to be built in France and used by the Allies. It was the first British-designed tank to separate the engine from the crew, improving conditions. After the war, 100 were built in the US, serving until 1930.

External frame Riveted hull armour

Return rollers

l Mark IX Date 1918 Country UK Weight 37.6 tonnes (41.4 tons) Engine Ricardo petrol, 150hp Main armament 2 x .303 Hotchkiss Mark I* machine-guns

Officially called a tank, the Mark IX was in fact the first armoured personnel carrier (APC), carrying 30 infantrymen. It was underpowered as it used the same engine as the Mark V, but weighed 9 tonnes (10 tons) more. One Mark IX was used for trials as an amphibious tank, with large floats attached to the side.

r M1918 3 Ton Tank Date 1918 Country USA Weight 3 tonnes (3.4 tons) Engine 2 x Ford Model T petrol, 45hp each Main armament .30-calibre machine-gun

The M1918 was designed for mass production by the Ford Motor Company using Ford car parts, with a two-man crew sitting next to each other between the tracks. However, the US Tank Corps in France did not adopt it, as they considered it to have little value as a combat vehicle. Of a planned 15,000, just 15 were built.

Lightweight frame design

Large idler wheel

l Skeleton Tank Date 1918 Country USA Weight 9.1 tonnes (10.1 tons) Engine 2 x Beaver 4-cylinder petrol, 50hp each Main armament .30-calibre machine-gun The unusual skeleton structure of this tank was intended to enable it to cross wide trenches, while keeping the vehicle’s weight down. The fighting compartment contained the two-man crew and the engine. The design meant sponsons could not be used, so the armament was carried in a roof-mounted turret.

Axles securing road wheels

Rotating turret Front armour

Sponson housing 6-pounder gun

Allied insignia

u Fiat 2000 Date 1917 Country Italy Weight 40.6 tonnes (44.8 tons) Engine Fiat Aviazione A.12 6-cylinder petrol, 240hp Main armament 65mm L/17 howitzer

Fiat 2000 was the first Italian tank – its two prototypes were built privately by FIAT in 1917 and donated to the Italian Army in 1918. In 1919, FIAT 2000s were sent to fight in Libya, but its low speed made it ineffective against guerrilla fighters. In addition to the main gun, the tank had six machine-guns.

Machine-gun housed in turret

r Medium Mark C (Hornet) Date 1919 Country UK Weight 19.8 tonnes (21.8 tons) Engine Ricardo petrol, 150hp Main armament 4 x .303 Hotchkiss Mark I* machine-guns British designers William Tritton and Walter Wilson parted ways in 1917 (see pp.28–29). Wilson designed the Medium Mark C in 1918, which was regarded as a superior vehicle to Tritton's Medium Mark B. Fifty were built, and the tank remained in service until 1923.

3 4 . T H E F I R ST TA N KS

Early Armoured Cars The first armoured vehicles to see action in World War I were used by the British and Belgians around Antwerp in 1914. They engaged the German forces as they advanced and acted as rescuers for pilots forced down behind enemy lines. These early cars often had improvised armour and weapons, but specially designed vehicles were soon in service. The stalemate on the Western Front limited the use of armoured cars, but they still had value in theatres where the fighting remained mobile.

r Lanchester Armoured Car Date 1915 Country UK Weight 4.9 tonnes (5.4 tons) Engine Lanchester 6-cylinder petrol, 60hp Main armament .303 Vickers machine-gun

r Minerva Armoured Car Date 1914 Country Belgium Weight 4.1 tonnes (4.5 tons) Engine Minerva 4-cylinder petrol, 40hp Main armament 8mm Hotchkiss machine-gun

The Belgian Army ordered some 30 armoured cars from the Belgian car manufacturer Minerva. The first model had no doors or roof, and a top speed of around 40km/h (25mph). Later versions were given a roof and enough armour to protect the machine-gun.

The Lanchester began its career with the Royal Naval Air Service. A total of 36 were built, first seeing action in Belgium, where they harassed German forces and rescued downed pilots. In 1916, they were sent to Russia, from where detachments travelled as far as Persia and Turkey.

Riveted steel armour

Two turrets with a machine-gun in each

Spoked wheels 50hp engine

r Austin Armoured Car Date 1914 Country UK Weight 4.2 tonnes (4.6 tons) Engine Austin petrol, 50hp Main armament 2 x .303 Hotchkiss Mark I machine-guns

Although the Russian Army was enthusiastic about armoured cars, Russia lacked the industrial capacity to build them, forcing it to look overseas. This vehicle was built by the British Austin Company, and Britain subsequently adopted it in 1918. Several Russian versions were captured and used by the new Eastern European nations after the war.

E A R LY A R M O U R E D C A R S . 3 5

r Mgebrov-Renault Date 1915 Country Russia

Sloped frontal armour

Weight 3.4 tonnes (3.7 tons) Engine Renault 4-cylinder petrol, 30hp Main armament 2 x 7.62mm M1910 machine-guns

u Peugeot modèle 1914 AC Date 1914 Country France Weight 5 tonnes (5.5 tons) Engine Peugeot petrol, 40hp Main armament 37mm Mle 1897 gun

There were two version of the Peugeot armoured car: the AC (autocannon) and the AM (automitrailleuse, or machinegun). Like most armoured cars, it was of limited use during the stalemate on the Western Front, and by the time mobile warfare returned in 1918 there were very few left.

The distinctive sloped armour on the Mgebrov-Renault was designed by Captain Vladimir Mgebrov of the Russian Army to improve protection without adding excessive weight. At first, the armament was mounted in an unusual rotating superstructure, but this was replaced in 1916 by two smaller turrets.

Turret at rear

l Lancia Ansaldo IZ Date 1916 Country Italy Weight 3.8 tonnes (4.1 tons) Engine Lancia V6 petrol, 40hp Main armament 3 x 6.5mm FIAT-Revelli M1914 machine-guns

Double rear wheels

The mountainous Italian Front was not suited to armoured cars, but the Lancia Ansaldo played an important role in protecting the Italians retreating after the disaster at Caporetto in 1917. A total of 120 were built, only 10 of which were double-turreted. A few remained in use in Italy’s African colonies until World War II.

Driver's compartment

r Ehrhardt E-V/4 Date 1917 Country Germany Weight 7.9 tonnes (8.7 tons) Engine Daimler 6-cylinder petrol, 80hp Main armament 3 x 7.92mm MG 08 machine-guns

Driver's vision ports

Unlike most armoured cars of World War I, the Erhardt was purpose-built rather than a converted civilian vehicle. It was used on the more mobile Eastern Front until fighting ended. Post-war, as violence engulfed Germany, it was deployed against rioters by the police and by Freikorps (German paramilitary units) against their opponents.

Forward left turret

Rear right turret

Armoured rear wheels

Armoured chassis

l Izhorski FIAT Date 1917 Country Russia Weight 4.8 tonnes (5.3 tons) Engine FIAT 6-cylinder petrol, 60hp Main armament 2 x 7.62mm M1910 machine-guns Most Russian armoured cars featured two separate turrets, each with a machine-gun. The chassis for this model was supplied by FIAT to the Russian Izhorski company, who added the armour. Around 70 were built, each having a crew of five.

1918–1939

BETWEEN THE WARS

BETWEEN THE WARS . 39

BETWEEN THE WARS Ambitious plans for the production and use of tanks were dramatically reduced at the end of World War I, but theories for the vehicle’s future role proliferated. Some military thinkers believed tanks could and should replace all other types of forces, whereas others felt trench warfare would never be seen again and that the tank was no longer necessary. The mechanical reliability of tanks improved greatly during this period. This encouraged both theorists and practitioners to consider faster paced and more mobile concepts of operations. Britain led the way, establishing u ”Spain Resurrected” A Spanish Nationalist poster celebrates the end her Experimental Mechanised Force – the of the Spanish Civil War, which saw tanks being first large formation used to test theories used in blitzkrieg fashion for the first time. of armoured warfare – in 1927. Development varied between nations. Britain decided it needed two types of tank – one for infantry support and the other a mobile replacement for cavalry, roles that required very different designs. Germany was forbidden tanks until 1933, so those it built were constructed in secret and tested in the Soviet Union. Armoured warfare theories in Germany were based around balanced all-arms mechanized formations operating at high speed. After many years restricted to just the FT, during the 1930s France produced several new tanks for a variety of roles, while the Soviet Union, usually taking foreign designs as a starting point, manufactured thousands of vehicles and developed a doctrine based on high mobility. During the 1930s, as war began to seem more likely and older tanks reached the end of their lives, a new generation of tanks began to enter service around the world. Many of these vehicles would soon see action.

“… the tankers have destroyed at Teruel no fewer than 1,000 fascist troops… our powerful tank cannons have relentlessly forced [them] out of the trenches.” SOVIET COLONEL S.A. KONDRATIEV, DURING THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR, 1937  A Spanish Republican poster waxes lyrical about the tank in 1936.

r July 1919 Four Medium Cs take part in the World War I Victory Parade in London, despite not fighting in the war. r 1920 French and American tank units are both placed under the control of their Infantry Branch. r 1923 The British Government’s Department of Tank Design is shut down. Tank development becomes the responsibility of private industry. r 1923 The British Royal Tank Corps is formed as a separate branch of service. The first of 166 Vickers Mediums are delivered, the most widely produced tank of the 1920s. r 1929 The Kama Tank School is established at Kazan, in the Soviet Union, allowing Germany to carry out tank development and training. r 1931 The job of developing mechanization within the US Army is assigned to the Cavalry Branch. r 1931 The French Army introduces the D1, its first new tank since 1918.

u Japanese tankettes The Japanese used thousands of tanks, but most were light vehicles that emphasized mobility over armour.

r October 1935 The first three German Panzer Divisions are formed. r 1935 A Soviet Mechanized Corps of over 1,000 tanks takes part in an exercise at Kiev. r 1936 The Spanish Civil War breaks out; Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union send their latest tanks to fight.

40 . BETWEEN THE WARS

Interwar Experiments As automotive technology improved during the 1920s and ’30s, tanks became more reliable and capable. This progress, along with the debate over the future role of tanks on the battlefield, encouraged designers to be innovative. As a result, a wide range of experimental vehicles were developed. Some were aimed at providing individual soldiers with armoured protection, while others were intended as “land battleships” that could operate unsupported by other arms. Some proved to be harbingers of the future, while others were dead ends.

u Stridsvagn m/21 Date 1921 Country Sweden Weight 8.9 tonnes (9.8 tons) Engine Daimler-Benz petrol, 60hp Main armament 6.5mm Ksp m/1914 machine-gun

Sweden’s very first tank, the four-man m/21, was based on the German LK II prototype. Due to the ban on tanks imposed on Germany by the Treaty of Versailles, the LK II was illegally and secretly exported to Sweden in pieces labelled as tractor parts. The m/21 was used for training purposes, and in the early 1930s five were upgraded to m/21-29 standard.

.303 Lewis machine-gun Riveted armour

 Morris-Martel Tankette Date 1926 Country UK Weight 2.2 tonnes (2.5 tons) Engine Morris 4-cylinder petrol 16hp Main armament .303 Lewis machine-gun In 1925, British officer Major Gifford Martel designed a one-man tracked vehicle, which soon attracted official attention. When it was demonstrated that it was impossible for one man to both drive the tank and operate the machine-gun, a two-man version (shown here) was developed. Used in the Experimental Mechanised Force, the Morris-Martel pioneered the tankette concept.

Reinforced rubber tracks

37mm Bofors m/38 gun

r A1E1 Independent Date 1926 Country UK Weight 32.5 tonnes (35.8 tons) Engine Armstrong Siddeley V12 petrol, 270hp Main armament QF 3-pounder gun As well as its main gun, the Independent had four machine-guns in four separate turrets, plus a cupola for the commander of its eight-man crew. Only one was ever built, but its design was influential; the Soviet T-35 owed it a debt, as did the German Neubaufahrzeug series and possibly the British triple-turret Cruiser Mark I.

Side armour protects suspension

 Leichttraktor Vs.Kfz.31 Date 1930 Country Germany Weight 9.7 tonnes (10.6 tons) Engine Daimler-Benz petrol, 100hp Main armament 3.7cm KwK 36 L/45 gun By secretly and illegally working with the Soviet Union at the Kama Tank School, Germany was able to build and operate a small number of tanks. Known as “tractors” for cover, they provided both soldiers and industry with experience of designing, building, and operating tanks.

Wheels in raised position

r Christie M1931 Date 1931 Country USA Weight 10.7 tonnes (11.8 tons) Engine Liberty V12 petrol, 338hp Main armament .50 Browning M2 machine-gun

Designed by J. Walter Christie (see pp.52–53), the M1931 was a follow-up to the turretless M1928. Unlike its predecessor, it was purchased by the US Army, but more influential were the two bought by the Soviets: these evolved into the BT series and the T-34. The tank’s suspension and light armour allowed for very high speed, even on rough ground.

Rear secondary turret

Tracks removed for increased speed Front secondary turret

 Amphibious Light Tank Date 1939 Country UK Weight 4.4 tonnes (4.8 tons) Engine Meadows 6-cylinder EST petrol, 89hp Main armament .303 Vickers machine-gun This vehicle was designed for British requirements and was based mechanically on the Vickers Light Tank rather than the company’s earlier amphibious tanks. Its hull was surrounded by kapok-filled aluminium floats, and it was driven in water by two propellers.

Boat-shaped aluminium hull

u Panzerkampfwagen Neubaufahrzeug Date 1934 Country Germany Weight 36.6 tonnes (40.3 tons) Engine BMV Va petrol, 290hp Main armament 7.5cm KwK 37 L/24 gun and 3.7cm KwK 36 L/45 gun

Intended as the standard German heavy tank to complement the Panzer I–IV vehicles, just five Neubaufahrzeugs were built, including two prototypes. The two main guns were mounted in the same turret, with two smaller machine-gun turrets firing forwards and backwards. The three combat vehicles saw limited service in Norway in 1940.

Hollow wheels assist buoyancy

 Stridsvagn fm/31 Date 1935 Country Sweden Weight 11.7 tonnes (12.9 tons) Engine Maybach DSO 8 petrol, 150hp Main armament 37mm Bofors m/38 gun

One weakness of early tanks was their tracks, which wore out quickly. To overcome this, many countries experimented with tanks that could carry their own wheels. This unique Swedish vehicle could raise or lower its wheels in 30 seconds. However, as tracks became more reliable during the 1930s, convertible vehicles were rendered unnecessary.

A new kind of cavalry The mechanization of the cavalry took place at different times across the world. Britain led the way in mechanization after a series of exercises on Salisbury Plain in the late 1920s, which showed the overwhelming advantages of a fully mechanized force – infantry in trucks, artillery towed by tracked or wheeled vehicles, tanks, and tracked scouting carriers. In 1928, the first British cavalry regiments were mechanized. The Great Depression and the consequent reduced budgets for the military – rather than the innate conservatism of the cavalry regiments – meant it took another 10 years before the remaining cavalry regiments in Britain were mechanized. The British War Office tried to transfer the élan of the cavalry into the new

mechanized roles, with cavalry regiments being used for scouting, reconnaissance, intelligence gathering, and screening advances and retreats. Memoirs, magazines, and newspapers of the time were full of the sense of loss many in the cavalry felt – for centuries of tradition, for their horses, and for smart uniforms being replaced with drab overalls. Lt Col C.E. Morgan wrote in a poem: “I’ve spent my life with ‘orses and I loved the work and toil/But I can’t stand these new fledged beasts that live on gas and oil”. British troopers of the Queen’s Bays cavalry regiment are shown a Vickers Light Tank in trials in Dorset, UK in the 1930s.

44 . BETWEEN THE WARS

Armoured Cars

l Peerless Armoured Car Date 1919 Country UK Weight 7 tonnes (7.7 tons)

Early tanks were unreliable: their tracks were prone to breaking on rough ground or when handled poorly, and they wore out relatively quickly. Wheeled vehicles, on the other hand, were much more durable, often carried similar firepower and armour protection, and were quieter, and usually faster, except over the roughest terrain. These qualities made armoured cars ideal as patrol vehicles, as the British used them in India. Other countries used them for reconnoitering ahead of their tank forces.

r Rolls-Royce Armoured Car Date 1920 Country UK Weight 4.3 tonnes (4.8 tons) Engine Rolls-Royce 6-cylinder petrol, 80hp Main armament .303 Vickers machine-gun

Engine Peerless 4-cylinder petrol, 40hp Main armament 2 x .303 Hotchkiss Mark I machine-guns

Step up to driver’s cabin

The 1920 Pattern Rolls-Royce was very similar to the Royal Navy’s 1914 Pattern. It was used by the British Army and Royal Air Force around the world, including in Ireland, Iraq, Shanghai, and Egypt. Some upgraded 1920 and 1924 Pattern vehicles were used in the North African Desert Campaign in 1940 and 1941.

Storage space for equipment

d Lanchester Armoured Car Date 1931 Country UK Weight 7.1 tonnes (7.8 tons) Engine Lanchester 6-cylinder petrol, 90hp Main armament .50 Vickers machine-gun This vehicle was very different to its wartime namesake (see p.34). Larger and heavier, it had four driven wheels at the rear, a second, rear-facing driver’s space at the back, and two additional .303 Vickers machine-guns. Thirty-nine were built, 10 carrying a radio instead of the hull Vickers gun. Some survived to fight the Japanese in Malaya in 1941–42.

Sloped bodywork deflects projectiles

r Sd Kfz 231 6 rad Armoured Car Date 1932 Country Germany Weight 5.4 tonnes (6 tons) Engine Magirus M206 petrol, 70hp Main armament 2cm KwK 30 L/55 cannon Based on a number of different 6x4 truck chassis, the Sd Kfz 231 began development in 1929. It had a crew of four, including a second, rearfacing driver. A total of 151 were built. It was used in Austria, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and France, but was withdrawn in 1940 due to poor offroad mobility. This version is a replica.

This vehicle paired an armoured body supplied by Austin with a Peerless truck chassis. Service in Ireland revealed it to be big and slow, and its solid rubber tyres uncomfortable. It was passed on to the Territorial Army, where it was kept by some units until the late 1930s.

d Automitrailleuse de Découverte (AMD) Panhard modèle 1935 Date 1937 Country France Weight 8.2 tonnes (9.1 tons) Engine Panhard ISK 4-cylinder petrol, 105hp Main armament 25mm Hotchkiss SA 35 cannon

Intended for reconnaissance, over 1,100 AMD 35s were built. It had a second, rear-facing driver, who also acted as a radio operator. Although it suffered from poor off-road mobility, it was quiet, fast, and popular. Production continued after the French surrender in 1940, and after the war ended in 1945.

u Leyland Armoured Car

This vehicle used a 6x4 Leyland truck chassis fitted with armour salvaged by the Irish from their Peerless cars. The turret was supplied by Landsverk of Sweden. Four were built and used alongside the eight similar Swedish L-180s. They were re-engined and had their front armour rebuilt in 1956–57.

Date 1937 Country Ireland Weight 13.2 tonnes (14.6 tons) Engine Ford V8 type 317 petrol, 155hp Main armament 20mm Madsen cannon

Rear driver’s and machine-gunner’s position

u Pansarbil m/40 (Lynx) Date 1939 Country Sweden Weight 7.1 tonnes (7.8 tons) Engine Volvo 6-cylinder petrol, 135hp Main armament 20mm Bofors m/40 cannon

Originally designed for Denmark, only three of the initial 18 vehicles reached the Danes before Germany invaded in 1940. Sweden kept the other 15 and ordered 30 more. The vehicle was symmetrical, with a six-man crew of front and rear drivers and gunners. Its front and rear wheels could steer, and its forward and reverse speeds were identical.

Cupola atop turret Running-board Vickers .303 machine-gun

r Crossley-Chevrolet Armoured Car Date 1939 Country UK Weight 5.1 tonnes (5.6 tons) Engine Chevrolet 6-cylinder petrol, 78hp Main armament 2 x Vickers .303 machine-guns The British Army in India made heavy use of armoured cars, especially on the North West Frontier Province bordering Afghanistan. They were built to “Indian Pattern”, including a dome-shaped turret with cupola and an asbestos lining to control the temperature. By 1939, the original cars had worn out, and their bodies were fitted to new Chevrolet chassis.

46 . BETWEEN THE WARS

Light Tanks and Tankettes Military budgets became increasingly stretched as the Great Depression continued throughout the 1930s. Tankettes, a concept that stemmed from the Morris-Martel vehicle, were a relatively cheap way to put a lot of armoured firepower onto the battlefield. They were generally used for infantry support and as such became increasingly popular. Light tanks, on the other hand, were larger and better protected, and their role was to take advantage of breakthroughs made by heavier tanks. During this period, most light tanks carried machine-guns, anti-tank guns only appearing towards the end of the 1930s.

r Carden-Loyd Carrier Mark VI Date 1928 Country UK Weight 1.5 tonnes (1.7 tons) Engine Ford Model T petrol, 22.5hp Main armament .303 Vickers machine-gun

.303 Vickers machine-gun

The Carden-Loyd Company built a series of one- and two-man tankettes during the mid 1920s. The Mark VI was the most successful (450 were built by 1935) and it was the last before the company was bought by Vickers. The design was sold around the world, where it influenced the development of many vehicles.

Face-hardened armour

l Vickers Light Tank Mark IIA Date 1931 Country UK Weight 4.3 tonnes (4.8 tons) Engine Rolls-Royce 6-cylinder petrol, 66hp Main armament .303 Vickers machine-gun Descended from the Carden-Loyd, the Vickers Light Tank series was intended to replace armoured cars for reconnaissance. The very similar Mark II, IIA, and IIB were the first to enter service. They had a two-man crew, an improved Horstmann suspension system, and new, more effective armour plating. Sixty Mark IIs were built, plus around 50 Indian Pattern variants.

Open driver’s hatch

Horstmann suspension system Light armour aids buoyancy

l T-37A Date 1933 Country Soviet Union Weight 3.2 tonnes (3.5 tons) Engine GAZ-AA petrol, 40hp Main armament 7.62mm DT machine-gun The T-37A amphibious tank was developed from the Vickers A4E11, which was sold to the Soviets in 1931. Because of its mobility, it was used for reconnaissance and for infantry support. In order to float it could only be lightly armoured, which led to heavy losses when Germany invaded Russia. Around 1,200 were built.

u Marmon-Herrington CTL-3 Date 1936 Country USA Weight 4.6 tonnes (5 tons) Engine Lincoln V-12 petrol, 110hp Main armament 2 x .30 Browning M1919 machine-guns

The CTL-3 was produced for the US Marine Corps, which imposed a 5-ton weight limit due to shipboard handling limitations. This proved to be a major drawback, and by 1939 it was clear that the US Army’s light tanks were superior and that their greater weight was manageable.

L I G H T TA N KS A N D TA N K E T T ES . 47

Twin turrets for machine-guns

u Light Tank M2A3 Date 1936 Country USA Weight 9.7 tonnes (10.6 tons) Engine Continental R-670-9A petrol, 250hp Main armament .50 Browning M2 machine-gun The M2 series was designed for infantry support, so machine-guns were all it received for firepower; the M2A3 had twin turrets, with a .50 machine-gun in one and a .30 in the other. However, lessons from the war in Europe showed that more weaponry was needed, so the M2A4 was fitted with a 37mm gun.

Vertical volute suspension

Armoured “calottes” for the crew’s heads

Sloping glacis plate armour

Stowage container

u Combat Car M1 Date 1937 Country USA Weight 9.9 tonnes (10.9 tons) Engine Continental R-670-9A petrol, 250hp Main armament .50 Browning M2 machine-gun Between 1920 and 1940, according to US law, only the US Army’s Infantry branch could operate tanks – which is why this vehicle used by the Cavalry branch had to be called a “Combat Car”. The M1 and M2 introduced many features that were reused on US tanks throughout World War II, including the Vertical Volute Suspension System (VVSS) and the Continental R-670 engine.

u UE Tankette Date 1937 Country France Weight 3.3 tonnes (3.6 tons) Engine Renault 4-cylinder petrol, 38hp Main armament None

r Vickers Light Tank Mark VIB Date 1937 Country UK Weight 5.3 tonnes (5.8 tons) Engine Meadows ESTB 6-cylinder petrol, 88hp Main armament .50 Vickers machine-gun

Another development of the Carden-Loyd Carrier, the UE was designed as a lightly armoured supply carrier for infantry. It had a stowage container behind the crew that could be tipped automatically, and it could tow a range of gear, such as mortars, anti-tank guns, and a tracked trailer. Some 5,000 were built, most of which were unarmed.

The two-man turret, armed with .50 and .303 machineguns, was introduced on the Mark V version of the Vickers Light Tank, and the Mark VI added a radio to the bustle. The Mark VIB was the most common variant, with almost 1,000 built. Combat experience in France, North Africa, and Greece showed that these tanks were inadequate.

Driver’s space front left

48 . BETWEEN THE WARS

Light Tank Mark VIB The Light Tank Mark VI was part of a series developed by Vickers-Armstrongs for the British Army. It was ordered in large numbers from 1936 as it was considered well suited to policing the empire and performing reconnaissance – as well as being relatively cheap. When war broke out in September 1939, over 1,000 of these light tanks were in British Army service, compared to just 150 heavier tanks.

USED FOR SCOUTING and securing the flanks of armoured forces, the Light Tank Mark VIB was a fast tank for its time, reaching up to 56km/h (35mph) on its Horstmann suspension. Armed with a double machine-gun housing, the turret had two Vickers machine-guns – a .50 and a .303. The tank’s armour was just over 13mm (0.5in) at its thickest – enough to stop bullets, but nothing heavier. The three crewmen consisted of the driver, who sat at the front to the left of the engine, and the gunner REAR VIEW and commander, who sat in the turret. The commander also acted as the radio operator. Due to its minimal length, the tank could pitch and rock when travelling over rough ground, forcing the gunner and commander in the turret to hang on to avoid being thrown around. The VIB equipped seven cavalry regiments of the British Army’s newly formed Royal Armoured Corps in 1940, alongside VIB vehicles in a number of the Royal Tank Regiments. It saw action in many of the early campaigns of World War II, including France and Libya in 1940, and Greece and Crete in 1941.

SPECIFICATIONS Name

Light Tank Mark VIB

Date

1936

Origin

Production

1,682

Engine

Meadows 6-cylinder petrol, 88hp

Weight

5.3 tonnes (5.8 tons)

Main armament

.50-cal Vickers

Secondary armament

.30-cal Vickers

Crew

Armour thickness

13mm (0.5in)

Commander

Gunner

Driver Engine

L I G H T TA N K M A R K V I B . 49

Commander’s cupola offers improved vision

Armoured engine cover

Front armour offers 38mm (1.5in) protection THREE-QUARTER VIEW

Hortsmann suspension system

Expeditionary force This Light Mark VIB is painted with the markings of the 4th/7th Dragoon Guards with 2nd Infantry Division in the British Expeditionary Force in France, 1940.

Unit recognition code The number “4” indicates that the tank is a member of the 4th/7th Dragoon Guards.

Weight indicator The bridging weight of the tank is painted onto its hull, rounded up to the nearest tonne.

50 . BETWEEN THE WARS

EXTERIOR

As the Light Tank Mark VIB was made before the use of periscopes, the crew had to look directly out of armoured vision ports, increasing the risk of injury from bullets or shrapnel. Its external maker’s plate has had the manufacturer’s details chiselled off the brass – this was to stop a captured tank revealing the manufacturer’s address, which would have been a prime target for a German bomber. 6

1. Battalion insignia 2. Headlamp 3. Spotlight 4. Driver’s vision port 5. Fire extinguisher 6. Main machine-gun and co-axial machine-gun 7. Smoke grenade discharger 8. Commander’s vision port 9. Manufacturer’s plaque with information removed 10. Exhaust 11. Towing cable 12. Aerial mount 13. Road wheels in paired suspension unit 1

L I G H T TA N K M A R K V I B . 51 14

INTERIOR Although this tank was constructed in the age of modern production-line manufacturing techniques, it was not mass-produced in the true sense. The fit and finish of the armour plates reveals the level of skill and craftsmanship required to complete them.

14. Looking down into commander’s position 15. Commander’s vision port 16. Turret traverse mechanism 17. Main machine-gun and co-axial machine-gun 18. Gunner’s vision port 19. Driver’s seat 20. Driver’s position looking through into tank 21. Driver’s controls 22. Instrument panel 17

52 . BETWEEN THE WARS

Christie in the M1931 tank he designed for the US Army

Great designers

J. Walter Christie J. Walter Christie is often recorded as being a maverick inventor – irascible, argumentative, and hard to deal with – and it may be that his personality got in the way of his tank designs seeing series production. However, some of his inventions had a great influence on tank development.

CHRISTIE, AN AMERICAN, worked His stubbornness in arguing his case as a consulting engineer for a number of and his rudeness before authority steamship lines before turning his attention became a pattern that did not to motor racing. He designed and drove endear him to the military a front-wheel-drive car in the 1907 authorities. However, he did have French Grand Prix, and later the some success with an amphibious same year was involved in a serious light tank that the US Marine Corps J. Walter Christie car accident at a race track in Pittsburgh thought had potential, even though (1865–1944) while attempting to set a track record. A it initially had trouble reaching shore car he designed – the Christie Racer – later became during a test. He developed his interest in tanks, the first car to lap the Indianapolis speedway at and after years of experimentation and large over 161km/h (100mph). financial investment he displayed a radical new Christie also designed taxi cabs and fire engines. tank chassis to the US military in October 1928. During World War I, he designed a gun carriage Christie wanted to call his tank Model 1940, for the US Ordnance Board, but refused to because he considered it a dozen years ahead listen to his client’s specific requirements. of its time, but it was designated Model 1928. The new vehicle had large road Experimental design wheels, which it could run on with Christie’s experimental T3E2 tank could the tracks removed. Uniquely, move fast, but only had room for a crew each wheel had its own of two. The US Army deemed it inadequate as an infantry support weapon. independent suspension –

Passing the test A T3E2 tank with Christie suspension crosses an obstacle course in 1936. Each wheel had its own suspension, enabling the tank to cross difficult ground with ease.

a “helicoil” spring mounted inside the hull – which gave the tank an extraordinary agility when crossing rough ground, each wheel bumping up and down as it passed over an obstacle. This enabled the tank to travel much faster than conventional tanks, which used the relatively cumbersome “leaf spring” suspension system. To keep weight down and speed up, the tank had thin armour, which was also sloped at the front to deflect projectiles. Christie envisaged his tank being used to penetrate enemy positions and travel at speed far into enemy territory. It weighed only 8 tonnes (9 tons) and had a Liberty engine that gave it a top speed of 68km/h (42mph) on tracks – and an extraordinary 112km/h (70mph) on its wheels. The US Army Infantry Tank Board was unimpressed by the tank’s thin armour – they saw tanks as infantry support weapons – so they passed Christie onto the Cavalry, who were more interested in armoured cars at the time. To add to Christie’s frustration, the US military refused to pay the development costs he had incurred. Christie became more argumentative and embittered, and decided to sell his designs to the highest bidder. This led him to having dealings with a number of foreign countries:

J . WA LT E R C H R I S T I E . 5 3

“ Mr Christie we don’t want them and we won’t care who you sell them to.” MAJOR CHRISTMAS, US ORDNANCE BOARD

“Glory to Soviet tank crews” Christie’s supsension system became a key component of the Soviet Union’s revolutionary T-34 tank.

Poland, who ordered a tank, but had their money returned when it wasn’t delivered; the Soviet Union, who received two tanks and various plans that were delivered illegally as agricultural tractors; and Britain, who also

British tank factory Many of the tanks assembled at this British factory during World War II featured Christie wheel and suspension design. These included the Covenanter, Crusader, Comet, Cromwell, and A13 Cruiser tanks.

bought a tank that was exported in pieces as an agricultural machine. These exported vehicles were influential in leading to the Russian BT series of fast tanks and the British A13 Cruiser tank. Despite developing even more designs, Christie never found favour with the US military and died a frustrated and bitter man.

The flying tank Although the idea never took off, Christie designed the “flying tank” – a two-man vehicle with detachable wings that was intended to fly straight onto the battlefield.

Vickers creates a global tank The Vickers Mark E (or 6-Ton Tank) was designed as a private venture in the late 1920s by a team including designers John Valentine Carden and Vivian Loyd. It became a great export success. It was made in two key variants – the Type A, seen here, with two Vickers machine-guns in separate turrets, and the Type B, which had a single turret with an innovative mounting housing a machine gun and a 47mm or 3-pounder gun. It had riveted armour plates up to 25mm (1in) thick on the front, and its suspension consisted of two axles holding double bogies with leaf springs connecting the two sets; when one wheel set was raised, the springs pushed down on the second. An Armstrong Siddeley engine gave it a top speed of 35km/h (22mph) on the road.

Vickers exported over 150 Mark Es, and many more were built under licence, in some cases kick-starting the licensee nation’s tank production. The Soviet Union bought 15 Type A vehicles and then built their own version, the T-26, in vast quantities, while many of the 17 countries that used the Mark E modified the design to fit their own requirements. The tank saw action worldwide: first in the Chaco War between Bolivia and Paraguay in 1933; in the Spanish Civil War; in the fighting between Finland and the Soviet Union; and in China, Poland, and Thailand. A Vickers Mark E tank is displayed during trials in Warsaw, Poland in the 1930s, observed by a large crowd.

56 . BETWEEN THE WARS

Medium and Heavy Tanks

l Vickers Medium Mark II* Date 1926 Country UK Weight 13.7 tonnes (15.1 tons) Engine Armstrong-Siddeley V8 petrol, 90hp Main armament QF 3-pounder gun

Slower and more powerful vehicles, the medium and heavy tanks were intended to take on enemy armour and fortifications, creating the breakthrough for faster vehicles to exploit. In general, armour protection and firepower were therefore emphasized over mobility. The Vickers Independent’s multiple turrets influenced a number of these tanks, and Walter Christie’s suspension system also began to find favour. Many nations purchased the Vickers Mark E, with some, like the Soviet Union, using it as a starting point to develop their own designs.

The very similar Medium Mark Is and IIs served the Royal Tank Corps from 1923 to 1938. They were the first turreted tanks in British service, and although they saw no action, they had a massive influence on the design work done between the wars. A total of 166 tanks were built.

Pistol port

r Vickers Mark E, 6 Ton Date 1928 Country UK Weight 7.5 tonnes (8.3 tons) Engine Armstrong -Siddeley 4-cylinder petrol, 80hp

Riveted hull armour

Main armament QF 3-pounder gun A successful commercial design, Vickers sold this tank to 12 nations. It was not produced in large numbers, with only about 150 tanks built. The largest single order came from Poland for 38 tanks. However, its design was highly influential, and the 7TP (see pp.70–71) and T-26 were developed from it. The tank had two variants – Type A had two machine-gun turrets, while Type B had a single turret, as shown here.

45mm main gun

d T-28 Date 1933 Country Soviet Union

Engine exhaust

Weight 29 tonnes (31.9 tons) Engine Mikulin M17T petrol, 500hp Main armament 76.2mm KT-28 L26 howitzer

Spare road wheels on hull

u T-26 Date 1931 Country Soviet Union Weight 9.4 tonnes (10.4 tons) Engine T-26 4-cylinder petrol, 91hp Main armament 45mm 20K Model 1934 L/46 gun

The T-26 was by far the most widely produced tank of this period. A total of 12,000 tanks, including 2,000 twin-turreted vehicles and 1,700 variants, were built. It was used in the Spanish Civil War, but its weaknesses were soon exposed, and despite upgrades it was outclassed by 1939. In the Far East, some survived until 1945.

A multi-turreted design, the T-28 was intended for infantry support, so it was armed with a howitzer rather than an anti-tank gun. Around 500 were built. Experience in Poland and Finland led to extra armour being applied to some vehicles.

Smaller turrets armed with machine-guns

M E D I U M A N D H E AV Y TA N KS . 5 7

l BT-7

Based on Christie’s M1931 (see pp.40–41), the BT-7 succeeded the BT-2 and BT-5. A total of 8,122 tanks of all three variants were built. They were fast and well-armed but very lightly armoured. They were used in Spain, the Far East, Poland, and Finland. Thereafter, thousands were lost in the German invasion of 1941, although like the T-26, some survived the war in the Far East.

Date 1935 Country Soviet Union Weight 13.8 tonnes (15.2 tons) Engine Mikulin M17T petrol, 450hp

Driver's hatch

Main armament 45mm 20K Model 1934 L/46 gun

Separate fighting compartment in each turret

Tracks could be removed for road driving

u T-35

A heavy tank, the T-35 shared many components with the T-28 in an effort to ease production, but ultimately just 61 were built. It had five turrets, one with the 76.2mm gun, two with 45mm 20K guns, and two with DT machine-guns. Most were lost during the German invasion.

Date 1936 Country Soviet Union Weight 45.7 tonnes (50.4 tons) Engine Mikulin M17T petrol, 650hp

Camouflage paint

Main armament 76.2mm Model 1927/32 gun

Angled turret armour

r Medium Tank M2A1 Date 1939 Country USA Weight 23.4 tonnes (25.8 tons) Engine Wright Continental R-975 petrol, 400hp

Machine-guns cover 360 degrees

Main armament 37mm M3 L/56.6 gun

Drive sprocket

The M2 was the first US medium tank to enter production. Intended for infantry support, the tank was also armed with six .30 machine-guns arranged to allow all-round fire. Although the M2 was clearly obsolete by 1940, its VVSS (see pp.46–47) and R-975 engine were not. Both were reused on the M3 and M4.

Spare road wheel on turret

Headlamp

Vertical volute suspension

Swedish national symbol

l Strv m/40L Date 1940 Country Sweden Weight 9.1 tonnes (10.1 tons) Engine Scania-Vabis 1664 petrol, 142hp Main armament 37mm Bofors m/38 gun Based on the Landsverk L-60, a total of 100 Strv m/40Ls were built. Interwar Swedish tanks were very capable, but as a neutral nation Sweden was left behind by rapid tank development during World War II. Twenty tanks were sold to the Dominican Republic in 1956. These were the only m/40Ls to see combat – against the US in 1965.

58 . BETWEEN THE WARS

Vickers Medium Mark II Introduced in 1923, the Vickers Medium tank was the first British tank to see service fitted with a sprung suspension and a rotating turret. The design was so successful that the Medium was the main British tank from 1923 to 1935.

DESIGNED TO FIGHT on the move, the Medium’s high speed of 30mph (48km/h) came from its air-cooled Armstrong Siddeley engine, which was mounted in the front of the tank. The tank itself had seven variants. The first, the Medium Mark I, had a 3-pounder gun in the turret, a Vickers machine-gun in each side of the hull, and Hotchkiss light machine-guns in the turret. This main gun was adequate against contemporary REAR VIEW tanks, but it was useless against field fortifications and anti-tank guns, so a close support version of the tank was built. The Mark II dispensed with the Hotchkiss machine-guns and had a co-axial Vickers machine-gun instead. In addition to the gun tanks, command-post and bridge-laying versions were also produced. Vickers Mediums formed the backbone of the British Army’s Experimental Mechanised Force of 1928. This revolutionary combat formation carried out manoeuvres on Salisbury Plain that showed the potential of mechanized formations. For this reason, the mechanization of the British Army continued through the 1930s.

SPECIFICATIONS Name

Tank, Medium, Mark II*

Date

1923

Origin

Production

100

Engine

Armstrong Siddeley V8 petrol, 90hp

Commander

Weight

13.7 tonnes (15.1 tons)

Gunner

Main armament

3-pounder

Secondary armament

3 x Vickers .303 machine-guns

Crew

Armour thickness

6.25–8mm (0.25–0.3in)

Gunner Gunner

Driver

59 3-pounder main gun

Metal track with cast links

Covered sprung suspension

THREE-QUARTER VIEW

Regimental HQ tank tactical symbol

Vickers .303 machinegun in ball mount

Mechanized cavalry This propaganda poster from 1940, featuring the Medium Mark II, illustrates the extent to which the British Army had changed since World War I. By 1941, all of its cavalry regiments had been mechanized.

Vehicle identification Eminent export The Vickers Medium was influential not only because it proved the potential of armoured formations, but also because it was widely exported. Fifteen tanks were sold to Russia, and the one sold to Japan led to the country’s own Type 89 tank design.

This particular Vickers Medium Mark II tank was used as a training vehicle, indicated by the insignia painted on its sides.

60 . BETWEEN THE WARS

EXTERIOR

The Vickers Medium was constructed with riveted armour plate – 6.25mm (0.25in) thick on the front, which was proof against bullets but little else. However, the Royal Tank Corps, formed in 1923, became highly skilled at firing the 3-pounder gun on the move, an achievement that enabled them to keep up their mobility and become a harder target for enemy gunners to hit.

1. HQ Command tank tactical sign 2. Light shroud 3. Headlight 4. Engine air intake 5. Driver’s hatch 6. Co-axial Vickers machine-gun mount 7. Hull wall ballmount Vickers machine-gun 8. Main armament sight aperture 9. Turret vision port 10. “Mitre”-type commander’s hatch 11. Track tensioner 12. Track return roller 13. Drive sprocket 14. Exhaust

12 24

VICKERS MEDIUM MARK II . 61 16

INTERIOR The Medium had a surprisingly roomy interior. Crewed by five men, the driver sat at the front, next to the engine, while the commander and gunner sat in the turret. Two further gunners manned the Vickers .303 machine-guns on each side of the hull.

15. View through rear door 16. Fighting compartment interior 17. 3-pounder gun breach 18. Gun elevation wheel 19. Turret traverse wheel 20. Co-axial Vickers machine-gun 21. Fire extinguisher 22. Hull machine-gun position 23. Vickers .303 machine-gun 24. Driver’s position from above 25. Driver’s controls 26. Engine oil gauge 27. Manufacturer’s date plate

1939–1945

WORLD WAR II

WORLD WAR II . 65

WORLD WAR II The tank came of age during World War II, seeing service all over the world in all climates and all terrains. The success of the German attacks of 1939–40 was largely due to the mobility of their Panzer forces. Although individually many of their tanks were outclassed by the latest Allied vehicles, the Germans concentrated their tank formations into larger units that were supported by artillery and airpower in a combination that overwhelmed their enemies. By contrast, French and British tanks were often spread too thinly across the front, and many were too lightly armed for anti-tank warfare. In North Africa, the British enjoyed great u German war poster success against the Italians, but once the A German Army recruitment poster enjoins the Dutch: “For your honour and conscience! Fight German forces began to arrive, offensives and Bolshevism. The Waffen-SS is calling you!” counter-offensives by both sides saw the front line move hundreds of miles in both directions. The Soviet Union had roughly 22,600 tanks when the Germans invaded. Many were outdated, and around 20,500 were lost in 1941 alone. The invasion forced the Soviets to move entire factories hundreds of miles to the east, where they began producing tanks and equipment on an unprecedented scale. In Europe, the Allied advances of 1944–45 were made possible by the mobility of their tank forces. Tanks also fought in Italy, where their mobility was tested by the terrain, and in the Far East, where older, lighter Allied tanks remained viable against Japanese forces. The Allies built over 180,000 tanks during the war, and many remained in service around the world for decades, serving alongside newer vehicles whose designs incorporated the lessons learned during the conflict.

“ Nikolayev and his loader Chernov jumped into the burning machine, started it, and sent it right into the Tiger. Both tanks exploded in the collision.” RUSSIAN MINISTRY OF DEFENCE ARCHIVE, ON THE BATTLE OF KURSK  A US War Production Board poster reminds manufacturers of their priorities during the war.

Key events r September 1, 1939 German forces invade Poland. The Soviets invade on September 17, and Poland is defeated by October 6. r May 1940 The Battle of Arras. The experience of facing seemingly impenetrable British tanks spurs the development of the German Tiger. r April 1941 The Detroit Tank Arsenal delivers the first of 25,059 tanks to the US Army. r June 1941 Germany invades the Soviet Union. The next day they encounter the T-34 for the first time. r November 1941 The first of over 12,000 British and American tanks supplied to the Soviet Union see action. r October 1942 The Second Battle of El Alamein begins in Egypt. It marks the combat debut of the M4 Sherman. r July–August 1943 The Battle of Kursk is fought. The Soviets lose far more tanks than the Germans, but they gain the strategic initiative.

u Battle of Kursk Soviet infantry advance on a German position near Kursk in 1943. Their eventual victory was the beginning of the end of German ambitions in the east.

r June 1944 On Saipan, the largest Japanese tank attack of the Pacific War is launched. Forty-four tanks take part, 12 survive. r April 1945 The invasion of Okinawa begins. Over 800 US tanks take part, reflecting how useful they have proven to be in the Pacific.

66 . WORLD WAR II

German Tanks: 1939–40 Although the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 forbade Germany to own tanks, its army experimented with armoured warfare in the Soviet Union during the 1920s. After Hitler came to power in 1933, Germany began openly building armoured forces. The first tanks, Panzer I and II, were intended for training, but were used in the Spanish Civil War, which highlighted a number of weaknesses. Panzer IIIs and IVs incorporated these lessons, but they were scarce in 1939. The Panzer II remained the most common German tank throughout this period.

u Panzer I Ausf A Date 1934 Country Germany Weight 5.5 tonnes (6 tons)

Vision ports

Engine Krupp M305 petrol, 57 hp Main armament 2 x 7.92mm MG13 machine-guns

l Panzer I Command Tank Date 1935 Country Germany Weight 6 tonnes (6.6 tons) Engine Maybach NL38TR petrol, 100hp Main armament 7.92mm MG34 machine-gun

2cm main gun

 Panzer II Date 1937 Country Germany Weight 9.7 tonnes (10.6 tons) Engine Maybach HL62TR petrol, 140hp Main armament 2cm KwK 30 L/55 cannon

Drive sprocket at front

Although more heavily armed and armoured than Panzer I, the Panzer II was also intended mainly for training. Due to a shortage of modern vehicles, it had to act as Germany's primary tank during 1939–40. Later, it proved effective as a light tank and for reconnaissance, serving until 1943.

The Panzer I was intended only as a training vehicle. However, a shortage of other tanks meant the two-man Panzer I would ultimately see combat in Spain, Poland, France, Denmark, Norway, Russia, and North Africa. This Ausf A variant was underpowered and not really viable in combat; it proved invaluable for training, however.

The standard Panzer I only had space for a radio receiver, but unit commanders needed to transmit as well. This vehicle carried a transmitter and a third seat for the radio operator. It was used from 1935 until late 1942, when it was replaced by more advanced vehicles.

d Panzer III Ausf E

At the outbreak of the war, the Panzer III was intended as the primary German anti-tank vehicle. The three-man turret gave the German Weight 20.1 tonnes (22.2tons) crew a definite advantage over their opponents. Engine Maybach HL120TRM petrol, 300hp The Panzer III proved adequate in Poland and Main armament 3.7cm KwK 36 France, but it soon became clear that it needed L/46.5 gun greater firepower. Date 1937 Country Germany

u Panzer IV Ausf F Date 1937 Country Germany Weight 20.3 tonnes (22.4 tons) Engine Maybach 120TRM petrol, 300hp Main armament 7.5cm KwK 37 L/24 gun

The Panzer IV was originally intended to support the Panzer III, using its shortbarrelled gun to destroy unarmoured targets such as anti-tank guns and fortifications. It soon became clear that it could take a larger gun and heavier armour, and that both would be needed to counter new threats.

3.7cm main gun

Road wheels

 Panzer 35(t) Date 1935 Country Czechoslovakia Weight 10.7 tonnes (11.8 tons) Engine Skoda T11/0 petrol, 120hp Main armament 3.7cm Kwk 34(t) L/40 gun The Panzer 35(t) was ahead of its time, although some of its complex features proved unreliable. A total of 219 tanks were confiscated by the Germans during the takeover of Czechoslovakia in 1939. These were used in Poland, France, and the Soviet Union. By late 1941 a shortage of spare parts, unreliability, and difficulty with the cold weather led to the tank being withdrawn.

Stowage bins

Riveted hull armour

Leaf spring suspension

Commander’s cupola

u Panzer 38(t) Ausf E Date 1938 Country Czechoslovakia Weight 10 tonnes (11 tons) Engine Praga EPA petrol, 125hp Main armament 3.7cm Kwk 38(t) L/47.8 gun

After annexing Czechoslovakia, Germany continued production of the Panzer 38(t), recognizing that it was more powerful and reliable than the Panzer I and II. Over 1,400 were built and used in France, Poland, and the Soviet Union until 1942. Its chassis was reused for a number of tank destroyers.

Germany’s tanks on the eve of war After World War I, Paragraph 24 of the Treaty of Versailles banned Germany from making tanks. However, German staff officers began secret experiments with tracked vehicles and co-operated with the Soviet Union in developing and testing armoured tracked vehicles, while dummy vehicles were constructed on car chassis to train with. General Oswald Lutz and his chief of staff, Lieutenant Colonel Heinz Guderian, promoted the idea of tanks grouped together in armoured divisions. Guderian thought three types of tanks would be necessary: a huge breakthrough tank to smash fortifications; an infantry tank to accompany the infantry on the attack; and a cruiser tank to advance behind enemy lines once a breakthrough had been achieved.

When Hitler came to power in 1933, he saw the propaganda value of tanks and supported their development. Guderian in turn simplified his requirements to two types – the infantry support tank (which became the Panzer IV) and a general purpose cruiser (the Panzer III). As German industry developed the III and IV designs with some difficulty, the Panzer I was also put into production to create a training tank for the German Army. It was superseded by the Panzer II, which went on to be the one of the most common tanks of the early war years. A German Panzer regiment shows off its Panzer I tanks at a rally in Kamenz, Saxony in 1936.

70 . WORLD WAR II

Allied Tanks: 1939–40 After the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, the Polish forces fought bravely, but were overwhelmed by the Germans and their allies. In May 1940, the French and British forces, facing the German invasion of Western Europe, had more tanks than their opponents, and many were superior on paper. However, they were spread thinly rather than concentrated into large units, and the shock of the German invasion, combined with poor tactics, had a strong psychological impact on Allied commanders. As a result, most of the Allied tanks that fought in 1940 were captured or abandoned.

Sharply angled hull

u 7TP

Main armament 37mm Bofors wz.37 L/45 gun

The 7TP was a Polish development of the Vickers Mark E. A small number of 7TPs had twin machine-gun turrets, but most of the approximately 150 tanks built had a single turret armed with a 37mm gun. The 7TPs were superior to most German tanks in 1939, but they were too few to affect the outcome of the invasion of Poland.

Hexagonal one-man turret

Vision port

Date 1937 Country Poland Weight 9.6 tonnes (10.5 tons) Engine Saurer VLDBb diesel, 110hp

Rounded hull areas deflect projectiles

Armour covers road wheels

u SOMUA S35 Date 1935 Country France Weight 19.5 tonnes (21.5 tons) Engine Somua V-8 petrol, 190hp Main armament 47mm SA 35 gun

The S35 was made of cast steel, which provided much better armour protection than riveted panels. It had a crew of three, but only a one-man turret, so the commander had to load, aim, and fire the gun, as well as command the tank.

Engine exhaust pipe

r Char B1 bis Date 1936 Country France Weight 31.5 tonnes (34.7 tons) Engine Renault V12 petrol, 307hp Main armament 1 x 75mm ABS 1929 SA 35 L/17.1 howitzer, 1 x 47mm SA 35 gun The most powerful French tank in 1940, the B1 bis was armed with a 75mm infantry support gun in the hull and a 47mm anti-tank gun in the usual one-man turret. It was very heavily armoured, but suffered from slow speed and limited range. This was a result of being in development since the 1920s; by the time it was ready, it had already been overtaken by other models.

u Char léger Modéle 1935 R Date 1935 Country France Weight 11 tonnes (12.1 tons) Engine Renault V-4 petrol, 85hp Main armament 37mm Puteaux SA 18 L/21 gun

Commonly known as the Renault R35, this was a light, two-man infantry tank. It had thick armour and a gun that was intended to destroy fortifications and eliminate infantry rather than knock out tanks. It was designed to operate alongside infantry, so its top speed was only 20km/h (121⁄2mph).

A L L I E D TA N KS : 1 939 – 4 0 . 7 1

Welded armour

u Char léger Modèle 1936 FCM Date 1936 Country France Weight 12.4 tonnes (13.7 tons) Engine Berliet 4-cylinder diesel, 91hp Main armament 37mm Puteaux SA 18 L/21 gun

This two-man infantry tank, commonly known as the FCM 36, was one of the first tanks to use welded armour, which gave it excellent protection. However, its SA 18 gun was inadequate against enemy armour, making the FCM less useful against the German Panzer forces. Only 100 were produced.

Cast turret

u A9 Cruiser Date 1937 Country UK Weight 12.2 tonnes (13.4 tons) Engine AEC Type 179 petrol, 150hp Main armament QF 2-pounder gun

The A9 was the first cruiser tank, a British concept intended for independent operations rather than infantry support. It was therefore fast, but lightly armoured. The A9 had capable suspension and probably the most powerful anti-tank gun in the world at the time; the 2-pounder.

Front-mounted drive sprocket Camouflage designed by Major Denys Pavitt

u Char léger Modéle

The H39 was an upgraded version of the H35, a two-man light tank. Intended to operate with the infantry, the H35 was rejected because of its poor Date 1935 Country France cross-country performance and was passed to the Weight 12 tonnes (13.2 tons) cavalry. The H39 solved this problem and improved the Engine Hotchkiss 6-cylinder petrol, 120hp tank’s firepower. Around 1,200 tanks of both versions Main armament 37mm Puteaux SA 38 were built in total. After the fall of France in 1940, L/33 gun several hundred of these were used by the Germans.

1939 H

Allied insignia

One-man turret

47mm anti-tank gun

u Infantry Tank Mark IIA A12 Date 1939 Country UK Weight 26.9 tonnes (29.7 tons) Engine 2 x AEC 6-cylinder diesel, 95hp each Main armament QF 2-pounder gun

Commonly known as Matilda II, this infantry tank was a far more capable vehicle than its predecessor. It had even heavier armour and a 2-pounder gun. In late 1940 and early 1941, this “Queen of the Desert” dominated the battlefields of North Africa. Although outclassed by later German tanks, it fought on in Australian hands against the Japanese. It was the only British tank to serve throughout World War II.

Metal tracks

d A13 Cruiser Mark III Date 1939 Country UK Weight 14.4 tonnes (15.9 tons) Engine Nuffield Liberty V12 petrol, 240hp Main armament QF 2-pounder gun

The Mark III A13 was the first British tank to use Christie suspension (see pp.52–53). This and the Mark III’s powerful engine gave it greater mobility, but its armour was only 14mm (0.55in) at its thickest. The Mark III – and the better-armoured but otherwise identical Mark IV – served in France in 1940 and the Western Desert in 1941.

Crew kit on turret

72 . WORLD WAR II

Axis Tanks: 1941–45

d Type 95 Ha-Go Date 1936 Country Japan Weight 7.5 tonnes (8.3 tons)

The North African Campaign, which began in 1940, was followed in 1941 by the German invasion of the Soviet Union and the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour. As fighting intensified, tank technology evolved – so much so that by the end of the war tanks had the kind of firepower, protection, and reliability that were undreamt-of in 1939. However, technology wasn’t everything. The Germans built ever more formidable vehicles, but these were plagued by mechanical failure and inexperienced crews. Tanks produced by Italy and Japan (the other Axis powers), being less advanced, were increasingly outclassed against the Allied armies.

Engine Mitsubishi 6-cylinder diesel, 110hp Main armament 37mm Type 98 gun

The Type 95 was popular with its crews and remained in front-line Japanese service throughout World War II. It was successful against the Chinese in the late 1930s, and in the early Japanese victories in 1942, but as Allied tanks began to enter combat it was soon outmatched. Its engine was powerful for its size, and its light weight made it useful on difficult terrain.

Stowage container

37mm main gun

Commander’s cupola

Riveted hull

Bell crank suspension

l Type 97 Chi-Ha Date 1937 Country Japan Weight 15.2 tonnes (16.8 tons) Engine Mitsubishi Type 97 diesel, 170hp Main armament 47mm Type 1 gun

7.92mm MG 34 machine-gun

The Type 97 medium tank had a similar design to the Ha-Go, and featured a 57mm gun optimized for infantry support. However, shortcomings in its firepower were exposed in the Battle of Khalkin Gol in 1939. The Japanese responded with the improved Shinhoto Chi-Ha, which had a 47mm anti-tank gun.

r Panzer IV Ausf H Date 1937 Country Germany Weight 25.4 tonnes (28 tons) Engine Maybach 120TRM petrol, 300hp Main armament 7.5cm KwK 40 L/48 gun

u Panzer III Ausf L Date 1937 Country Germany Weight 23.1 tonnes (25.4 tons) Engine Maybach HL120TRM petrol, 300hp Main armament 5cm Kwk 39 L/60 gun

First produced in 1937, the Panzer IV was upgraded in 1942. The addition of the long 7.5cm gun promoted it from its original role as a support tank to that of the German Army’s primary anti-tank vehicle. Its armour protection was also improved, including large add-on skirts and turret armour. Roughly 8,500 were built, making it the most commonly used German tank of World War II.

The Panzer III’s armour and gun were both upgraded after the combat experience in France. This version, the Ausf L, had 50mm armour and a 5cm gun. It fought in the Soviet Union and North Africa, but was replaced by the Panzer IV from 1942. The final Panzer III variant mounted the same 7.5cm howitzer as the first Panzer IVs.

Leaf-spring suspension

r M14/41 Date 1940 Country Italy Weight 14.5 tonnes (16 tons) Engine SPA 15T M41 diesel, 145hp Main armament 47mm M35 L/32 gun

Italy learned lessons from sending tanks into the Spanish Civil War. New vehicles were designed, as a result of that experience, and first saw service in North Africa in 1940. The M14/41 was an upgraded version of the M13/40 that was optimized for desert conditions. It was well armed, but its armour was no match for the Allies’ 2-pounder gun.

Breda 38 machine-guns

Rubber-rimmed road wheels

Large drive sprocket

A X I S TA N KS : 1 941 – 45 . 73

l Tiger Date 1942 Country Germany Weight 57.9 tonnes (63.8 tons) Engine Maybach HL210P45 petrol, 650hp (see p.75) Main armament 8.8cm KwK 36 L/56 gun

The Tiger was the product of Germany’s experience of fighting in France in 1940. Heavily armoured and equipped with a powerful 8.8cm gun, it proved a formidable opponent for Allied tank crews. However, the Tiger was not only expensive; its mechanical complexity also made it prone to technical problems. Only 1,347 were built.

7.5cm main gun Interleaved road wheels

Spare track links

l Panther Date 1943 Country Germany Weight 46.2 tonnes (51 tons) Engine Maybach HL230P30 petrol, 700hp Main armament 7.5cm KwK 42 L/70 gun

Commander's cupola

7.92mm MG 34 machine-gun

Designed in response to the Soviet T-34, the Panther was more heavily armoured and boasted far greater firepower. First used at Kursk in July 1943, it was fast and manoeuvrable, with strong frontal armour, and a very accurate and powerful gun. However, like the Tiger, it was often unreliable; engine fires were common.

Glacis plate armour

Armour sloped variably between 25 and 50 degrees

r Tiger II (King Tiger) Date 1944 Country Germany Weight 69.1 tonnes (76.2 tons) Engine Maybach HL230P30 petrol, 700hp Main armament 8.8cm KwK 43 L/71

The Tiger II was perhaps the most formidable tank of World War II. Its frontal armour could withstand all Allied anti-tank weapons, and its 8.8cm gun was a threat even at long range. Its engine was unreliable, however, and only 489 were built – too few to influence the outcome of the war.

74 . W O R L D W A R I I

Tiger I Of all the tanks of World War II, none has inspired such a fearsome reputation as the Tiger. With its 88mm gun, thick frontal armour, wide tracks, and sheer size, it was a devastating weapon that struck terror into Allied forces on the battlefield. However, it was dogged by technical difficulties that compromised its tactical effectiveness.

HITLER ORDERED the production of a heavy tank in May 1941, after the failure of German weaponry to penetrate the armour of the Matilda 2 and Char B. The Tiger’s boxy shape and layout were similar to earlier German tanks, but on a huge scale – over twice the weight of the Panzer IV. The heavy tank was a stable platform for the accurate 88mm KwK 36 gun, REAR VIEW for which it carried 92 rounds. Its engine was upgraded from 650hp to 700hp during production: even so, the engine and transmission struggled to cope with the vehicle’s weight, which grew from a planned 50 tonnes (55 tons) to 57.9 tonnes (63.8 tons). The Tiger was rushed into service and suffered numerous teething problems. It was mainly used defensively, rather than to punch through enemy lines as intended: the cost of production, and a shortage of skilled crews, meant that it failed to have the desired impact on the battlefield. However, it had a huge psychological effect on the enemy, and remains the most mythologized tank of the war.

SPECIFICATIONS Name

PzKpfw VI Tiger Ausf E

Date

1942

Origin

Germany

Production

1,347

Engine

Maybach HL210P45 V-12 petrol, 650hp

Weight

57.9 tonnes (63.8 tons)

Main armament

8.8cm KwK 36

Secondary armament

7.92mm MG34

Crew

Armour thickness

Max 120mm (4.75in)

Radio operator

Loader

Commander Driver Gunner

TIGER I . 75

Muzzle brake expels propellent gases to stabilize the main gun

Ball mount offers both protection and range of fire

Spare track links can also act as extra armour

THREE-QUARTER VIEW

Interleaved road wheels help to distribute weight

See Also

Linux Passo A Passo - PDFCOFFEE.COM

Propaganda machine The Tiger was heavily used for German propaganda during the war. Here the Berliner Illustrierte Zeitung, a popular wartime illustrated magazine, features the tank on its cover.

Tactical number The number “131” indicates that this tank belonged to the 1st Company, 3rd Platoon of its tank regiment, and that it was the 1st tank of its platoon.

One of a kind This tank, Tiger 131, was captured in Tunisia in April 1943. As the first complete Tiger captured, it was taken to Britain for extensive analysis. An early example, it had the original HL210P45 engine rather than the more common HL230P30 700hp. The tank has been restored to running order.

76 . WO R L D WA R I I

EXTERIOR

To spread out the large weight of the tank, the road wheels are positioned in an interleaved system, copied from earlier German half-track designs. Sixteen torsion bars provide suspension – eight arms on each side, each arm holding three wheels, which meant that to replace one of the inner wheels, nine had to be removed. The size of the tank led to innovations such as removing outer road wheels and fitting thinner transport tracks for train travel. This tank, Tiger 131, still shows exterior battle damage from the day of its capture.

1. National recognition symbol 2. Driver’s vision port 3. Turret lifting lug 4. Radio operator’s machine-gun 5. Smoke grenade dischargers 6. Drive sprocket and interleaved road wheels 7. Commander’s hatch 8. Turret pistol port 9. Towing cables and wire cutters on hull 10. Fiefel air filter tubes 11. Track toolbox 12

TIGER I . 77 6

INTERIOR The commander and gunner sat in the left side of the turret, with the commander at the rear, while the loader was positioned in the space to the right. The driver and radio operator were stationed in the front of the main hull, and the latter operated the ballmounted machine gun.

12. Looking down into commander’s position 13. Commander’s periscope 14. Turret traverse wheel 15. Loader’s position and main gun breech 16. Binocular gun sight 17. Turret side vision port 18. Gun recoil return guage 19. Barrel elevation wheel 20. Driver’s controls and vision port 21. Driver’s instrument panel 22. Co-driver’s machine-gun

The flying tanks of D-Day The idea of carrying tanks by air dates back to the early 1930s, but it was not achieved until 1944 – D-Day. On the morning of June 6, a few tanks were flown from an airfield in Southern England and landed on the French coast near the mouth of the Orne river. The tanks were Tetrarch Light Tanks (see p.92) and the aircraft were Hamilcar Gliders. The Hamilcar was a large aircraft for its time, with a wingspan of 34m (110ft) and a weight of around 6.3 tonnes (7 tons). Built almost entirely of wood, it required a crew of two. It dropped its undercarriage on takeoff and landed on skids – as soon as the glider stopped, the tank started up and, as it moved forwards, it activated a rope that opened the nose door.

On D-Day, each Hamilcar carried either a pair of Universal Carriers (see p.122) or one Tetrarch. Hamilcars were used again on the Rhine Crossing in March 1945, in this case carrying US Locust light tanks. Built in the US to replace the Tetrarch, the Locust had many teething troubles, and by the time it reached Europe it was too weak to be of much use. Of the eight tanks used in the Rhine crossing, one was lost as a glider broke up in flight, three were damaged on landing, and another was rapidly knocked out by a German assault gun. A US Locust light tank disembarks from the folding nose of a Hamilcar glider in 1944.

80 . WORLD WAR II

M3 Stuart As World War II drew near, the US military set about replacing its outdated M2 light tank with a newer, betterarmoured version. The M3 was armed with a 37mm M6 main gun supported by five machine-guns, later reduced to two; its armour and weapons were no match for most tanks, but it was well liked for its speed and mechanical performance.

USED BY BOTH BRITISH and US armed forces, the M3 was christened “Stuart” after the Confederate General J.E.B. Stuart, in keeping with the British military tradition that named US-made tanks after US generals. Later, British troops gave it the affectionate nickname “honey” in honour of its reliability. The M3 had a Continental air-cooled radial engine with a heavy REAR VIEW fuel consumption. This affected its operational range, which could be as low as 120km (75 miles) before refuelling was necessary. However, British troops liked the reliability of the tank, and even though many Stuarts were knocked out in early encounters in the North African desert, this was mainly due to poor tactical use, not through any particular fault of the vehicles themselves. An improved model of the tank – the M5, with a redesigned hull and Cadillac V-8 engine – began replacing earlier models of the M3 from 1943 (see p.84). However, by this time it was clear that the 37mm gun was inadequate as an anti-tank gun against the heavier vehicles in use in Europe. The M3 and M5 were still used for reconnaissance in British service, sometimes with turrets removed for speed, and the tank was still a match for the less well-protected Japanese armoured vehicles in the Pacific theatre of war.

SPECIFICATIONS Name

M3A1 Stuart

Date

1941

Origin

USA

Production

22,700

Engine

Continental R-670 7-cylinder petrol, 250hp

Weight

12.9 tonnes (14.2 tonnes)

Main armament

37mm M6

Secondary armament

.30 Browning M1919

Crew

Armour thickness

51mm (2in) max

Commander

Gunner

Driver

Co-driver

M3 STUART . 81 Two-man turret holds commander and gunner

Serial number

37mm main gun with up to 174 rounds

Vehicle name

Co-driver’s machine-gun

Towing cable for swift battlefield recovery

THREE-QUARTER VIEW

Vertical volute suspension system

Vehicle name “Clementine” Some units allowed the naming of tanks after troops’ sweethearts, while others used place names or the initial letter of the unit.

Serial number The unique serial number issued to each tank remained with the vehicle, even if it was allocated to a new unit.

Reconnaissance tank This tank, called Clementine (see above), saw action with A Squadron, 3rd Royal Tank Regiment, part of the 4th Armoured Brigade, in November 1942 at the beginning of the Tunisian campaign. By this stage of the war, the Stuart was being used as a reconnaissance vehicle, as German tanks and anti-tank guns could easily pierce its 38mm frontal armour.

82 . WORLD WAR II

EXTERIOR The M3’s compact two-man turret gave it a slim profile, but offered very little space for the commander and gunner. The lack of a loader put additional pressure on the commander to load the main gun, as well as constantly focusing on the enemy’s position and the best direction of attack. Later models were fitted with a commander’s cupola to improve visibility; this version relied on periscopes and pistol ports around the turret. The driver’s vision, meanwhile, was limited to a single armoured port at the front of the vehicle.

1. Insignia 2. Co-driver’s machine-gun 3. Looking into driver’s position 4. Driver’s vision port 5. Commander’s periscope 6. Turret pistol port 7. Drive sprocket 8. Track tensioner 9. Suspension and road wheels 10. Engine 11. Fire extinguisher release 12. Rear light 13. Toolbox 7

M3 STUART . 83 15

INTERIOR The position of the radial engine in the rear of the tank meant that the main power shaft ran through the centre of the tank to the front transmission and drive sprockets. This transmission route effectively cut the front of the tank in two, making its interior even more cramped. Later models replaced the radial engine and lowered the high transmission cover giving the tank a roomier feel. 14. Looking down into commander’s position 15. Turret basket supporting commander’s seat (left) and gunner’s seat (right) 16. Commander’s periscope 17. Hydraulic fluid 18. Gunner’s position 19. Automatic turret traverse controls 20. Direction of travel indicator 21. Manual barrel elevation wheel 22. Driver’s position 23. Co-driver’s machine-gun

84 . WORLD WAR II

US Tanks: 1941–45 In 1940, the US had around 350 modern tanks in service. The well-developed American automotive industry turned its hand to tank manufacture, and expanded massively. By 1945 it had built over 60,000 vehicles and supplied them to every Allied power. Successful design components were kept from model to model to ease production. The M4 Sherman in particular proved capable of being upgraded extensively. American tanks were robust, well built, and powerful: while German designs were sometimes more powerful on paper, US crews' good tactics, logistics, and training were often enough to prevail.

Air filter

u M3A1 (Stuart) Date 1940 Country USA Weight 12.9 tonnes (14.2 tons) Engine Continental R-670 9A petrol, 250hp Main armament 37mm M6 L/56.6 gun

Riveted armour

The Stuart was an improved version of the 37mm-armed M2A4. It benefited from mass production techniques that made it reliable and easy to repair. It was used by all the Allied powers in every theatre of war. By 1944 it was obsolete as a tank, but remained in service for reconnaissance.

37mm gun 75mm main gun

r M4A1 (Sherman) Date 1942 Country USA Weight 30.2 tonnes (33.3 tons) Engine Wright-Continental R-975 petrol, 400hp Main armament 75mm M3 L/40 gun

u M3 (Grant) Date 1941 Country USA Weight 27.2 tonnes (30 tons) Engine Wright Continental R-975 petrol, 340hp Main armament 1 x 75mm M2 L/31 gun, 1 x 37mm M5 L/56.5 gun

The Sherman used the M3 chassis, combined with a turret for the 75mm gun. There were five main production variants of the Sherman, the primary difference being the engine used. The M4A1 had a cast rather than a welded hull. Almost 50,000 Shermans were built. This tank was the second ever produced and is the oldest survivor.

The M3 stemmed from an urgent need to field a 75mm gun before a suitable turret was ready. The gun was mounted in a sponson on the hull, which limited its field of fire. The M3 kept the successful engine and Vertical Volute Suspension System (VVSS) from the M2 medium. British M3s used a modified turret and named it the Grant. The original version was named the Lee.

Headlamp cage

Aerial mount

 M5A1 (Stuart) Date 1942 Country USA Weight 15.3 tonnes (16.9 tons) Engine 2 x Cadillac Series 42 petrol, 148hp each Main armament 37mm M6 L/56.6 gun

The M5 was developed from the M3 to free up R-670 engines for aircraft. The hull was also redesigned to improve protection. The new engine arrangement allowed more space inside for the crew and made the tank quieter. Unlike the M3, the M5 was not used by the Soviet Union, but both were used for the same roles in British and American service.

r M4A3E8 (76) (Sherman)

Upgraded 76mm gun

Date 1944 Country USA Weight 32.3 tonnes (35.6 tons) Engine Ford GAA V8 petrol, 500hp Main armament 76mm M1A2 L/52 gun A late model of M4A3, this “Easy 8” Sherman was armed with the more powerful 76mm gun in the new T23 turret. The frontal armour was sloped at 47 degrees, giving improved protection. The new Horizontal Volute Suspension System (HVSS) and wider tracks improved the tank’s mobility. This example appeared in the 2014 film Fury.

Gunsight aperture

Horizontal Volute Suspension System

l M24 (Chaffee) Date 1944 Country USA Weight 18.3 tonnes (20.2 tons) Engine 2 x Cadillac Type 44T24 petrol, 110hp each Main armament 75mm M6 L/39 gun

Muzzle brake

The M24 was designed to have superior mobility and firepower compared to the Stuart. However, due to delays in production, it did not fully replace the Stuart before the end of the war. It was the first US tank to make use of torsion bars instead of the Vertical Volute Suspension System.

Air vent

Pistol port

Idler wheel

u M26 (Pershing) Date 1945 Country USA Weight 41.7 tonnes (45.9 tons) Engine Ford GAF V8 petrol, 500hp Main armament 90mm M3 L/53 After a prolonged development process, production of the M26 was further delayed, and only 20 reached Europe to see combat. The powerful 90mm gun was capable against the Panther and the Tiger. Like the Chaffee, it had torsion bar suspension. As it used the same engine as the M4A3, but was heavier, it proved underpowered.

Track links

86 . WORLD WAR II

M4 Sherman Like the T-34 and Tiger, the Sherman’s story is often clouded by myths and misinformation. The US had made just 365 modern tanks by the end of 1940, but had made 49,234 Shermans alone by the war’s end – an amazing achievement, and one that should not be overlooked when comparing the Sherman with latewar German tanks on a like-for-like basis.

IN 1940, THE US DOCTRINE for the use of tanks centred around their role as weapons of exploitation – armoured cavalry that could dash forwards after a breakthrough and cause mayhem behind enemy lines. Designed in 1940 as the successor to the interim model M3 Lee medium tank, the Sherman met this criteria perfectly: it was speedy, and was armed with a good dual-purpose gun. It was also simple to maintain, reliable, and rugged. It was built in 11 different plants across the US, most of which had had no prior experience REAR VIEW of tank manufacture. The Sherman soon proved itself well suited to the needs of World War II, and was made in a number of sub-variants, adapted for many roles, and produced in such numbers (63,181, including derivatives) that it could arm the US, British and Commonwealth, Russian, and other Allied armies. The Sherman saw service in many nations’ armies after World War II, and was still in service in Paraguay in 2016.

SPECIFICATIONS Name

M4A1 Sherman

Date

1940

Origin

USA

Production

49,234

Engine

Wright-Continental R-975 radial petrol, 400hp

Weight

30.2 tonnes (33.3 tons)

Main armament

75mm M3

Secondary armament

.30 Browning M1919 machine-guns

Crew

Armour thickness

118mm (4.6in)

Loader

Driver

Commander Gunner

Co-driver

87 75mm medium velocity gun Gun mantlet Barrel clamp Extra stowage along the front glacis

THREE-QUARTER VIEW Rubber blocked track

Additional armour

Up-armoured model This Sherman M4A1 has a cast hull and additional armour welded over the hull sides to protect the ammunition stowage. In spite of crew stories, reports showed ammunition caused more “brew-ups” (fires) in Sherman tanks than the engine did, so protecting ammunition with extra armour and later “wet” ammunition stowage was vital.

“Havoc” The tank has the markings of a vehicle from H Company, 66 Armoured Regiment of the 2nd US Armoured Division. Tank names in H company began, understandably, with the letter H.

Tank serial number While tanks could change units, be rebuilt and re-assigned meaning a change in markings, the unique serial number remained with the vehicle as a permanent reference.

88 . WORLD WAR II

EXTERIOR As the war progressed, the design of the Sherman was modified with thicker armour, wider tracks, and a new, upgraded 76mm gun. With 11 different factories building the tank around four main engine types, the variations between the models can be considerable. This tank, produced by the Lima tank works in Ohio, US in 1943, has upgraded armour and went on to see service as a training vehicle in the French army after World War II.

1. Allied Forces recognition symbol 2. Tow hook 3. Headlamp 4. Front drive sprocket 5. Co-driver’s machine-gun 6. Armoured roof fan cover 7. Driver’s periscope 8. Driver’s hatch (closed) 9. Paired road wheels 10. Air filter 11. Spotlight 12. Turret hatch and commander’s cupola 13. Engine with doors open 14

M4 SHERMAN . 89 8

INTERIOR This version features the early turret design, with only one turret hatch shared by the fighting crew of commander, gunner, and loader; later models had a second hatch. The commander’s cupola offered a wide range of view, with vision ports all the way around. 14. Looking down into the commander’s position 15. Commander’s vision cupola block 16. SCR 508 radio set 17. Turret interior showing commander’s and gunner’s position 18. 75mm gunsight 19. 75mm ammunition 20. Main gun breech 21. Co-axial machine-gun 22. Azimuth indicator 23. Main gun elevation wheel 24. Driver’s hatch 25. Driver’s position 26. Driver’s instrument panel

Engine change behind enemy lines “Hurricane”, a Sherman serving with Company H, 66th Armoured Regiment of the 2nd Armoured Division, came ashore at Utah Beach on June 9, 1944. By August 16, it was in need of a new engine and here, behind the lines at Teilleul in Normandy, France, a new Continental R-975-C4 engine was readied to be dropped into the hull by a wrecker. Tanks – because of the stresses and strains they undergo – wear out components quickly. Climate and terrain have an obvious effect: dust in hot climates can enter the engine and act as a grinding paste along with sand and gravel, while in cold climates metal can become brittle, and fluids within the tank can freeze, causing damage. Inexperienced or undertrained crew

could also damage vehicles, and the nature of battles meant that maintenance could not always be properly carried out, leading to breakdowns and component failures. When the British Army first received US tanks in 1941, there was general agreement that maintenance of US vehicles was much easier than contemporary British designs. For a tank crew in the field, easier maintenance meant less time spent carrying it out, and that meant the greater possibility of a good night’s sleep.

M4 Sherman “Hurricane” has its engine changed in Normandy, France, in 1944. The Sherman’s manual dedicated 16 pages to engine changes.

92 . WORLD WAR II

UK and Commonwealth Tanks After evacuating from France, Britain had very few tanks available, and a German invasion was believed to be imminent. Due to this danger, it was decided to continue building older, less capable vehicles rather than accept the delays in production that would result from designing new vehicles and modifying factories to build them. This, combined with a restriction on size and weight, brought about by the need to fit tanks on railway wagons, meant that throughout the war British tanks were almost always less well-armoured than their opponents.

r Valentine Mark II Date 1940 Country UK Weight 16.3 tonnes (17.9 tons) Engine AEC Type 190 diesel, 131hp Main armament QF 2-pounder gun

u Covenanter Date 1940 Country UK Weight 18.3 tonnes (20.2 tons) Engine Meadows Flat 12 petrol, 300hp Main armament QF 2-pounder gun

The A13 Covenanter shared only the Christie suspension with earlier A13s. It had several faults. The engine radiators were fitted to the hull front, leading to cooling problems. The tank used steel wheels instead of aluminium, which increased weight and stressed the suspension. It was mostly used for training.

Co-axial machine-gun

The Valentine used parts from the A10 Cruiser, making it cheaper than the Matilda (see p.71). It also carried less armour but was easier to make. Early variants, such as this, mounted the 2-pounder gun in a two-man turret. A three-man turret was later developed, as was a two-man turret with a larger 6-pounder gun.

Driver's vision port

Three-wheel bogies

Anti-infantry machine-gun Fuel container on hull

Idler wheel Driver's vision port

l Tetrarch (Close Support) Date 1940 Country UK Weight 7.6 tonnes (8.4 tons) Engine Meadows 12-cylinder petrol, 165hp Main armament 3in howitzer

A pre-war design with a 2-pounder gun, the Tetrarch was intended to improve the firepower of British light tanks. However, the Battle of France proved their vulnerability. The few Tetrarchs produced were allocated to airborne forces, with some used during D-Day landings in June 1944. These were withdrawn by August.

U K A N D C O M M O N W E A LT H TA N K S . 9 3

l Crusader III Date 1941 Country UK Weight 20.1 tonnes (22.1 tons) Engine Nuffield Liberty Mark III V12 petrol, 340hp Main armament QF 6-pounder gun

Around 5,300 Crusaders were built, and they played a major role in North Africa. The Mark I and II were lightly armoured and fitted with the aging 2-pounder gun. This version, the Crusader III, had better protection and used the 6-pounder. The engine and Christie suspension made it very fast, but it proved to be unreliable in the desert.

Drive sprocket

2-pounder main gun

r Churchill Mark I Date 1941 Country UK Weight 39.1 tonnes (43.1 tons) Engine Bedford 12-cylinder petrol, 350hp Main armament 1 x QF 2-pounder gun, 1 x 3in howitzer The Mark I was armed with a 2-pounder gun for anti-tank operations and a 3in howitzer for supporting infantry with high explosive rounds. The howitzer was removed from later versions. Due to rushed production, early Churchills had many flaws, and the Mark I was only used in action at Dieppe in August 1942.

Coiled spring suspension

Thin metal covering idler wheel

Armoured machine-gun

l Sentinel Date 1942 Country Australia Weight 28.4 tonnes (31.4 tons) Engine 3 x Cadillac V8 41-75 petrol, 117hp Main armament QF 2-pounder gun In 1940, Britain could not spare any tanks for its allies, which led the Australians to design and build the Sentinel. Its turret and hull were large, complicated castings. More tanks became available after the US entered the war, and the 65 Sentinels produced were used only for training.

Horizontal volute spring suspension

r Cavalier Date 1940 Country UK Weight 26.9 tonnes (29.7 tons)

Tracks

Engine Nuffield Liberty petrol, 410hp Main armament QF 6-pounder gun

The first of three very similar Cruiser tanks designed to replace the Crusader, the Cavalier was an interim model that used the Crusader’s Liberty engine, as the Meteor engine that had been intended for these vehicles was not yet available. It was never used in battle.

95mm howitzer main gun Rear drive sprocket

Turret powered by hydraulics

l Centaur IV (Close Support) Date 1942 Country UK Weight 27.9 tons (30.8 tons) Engine Nuffield Liberty petrol, 395hp Main armament 95mm howitzer The second Crusader replacement, the Centaur, used the Liberty engine, but was modified so the Meteor would also fit with minimal changes. Most versions carried 6-pounder or 75mm guns, but the only ones to see action were Close Support variants with a 95mm howitzer, used on D-Day.

94 . WORLD WAR II

UK and Commonwealth Tanks (cont.)

Meteor engine

British tank doctrine, dating back to the mid-1930s, required two types of tank. Cruisers such as the Cromwell were intended for independent action and needed to be fast – however, this limited the amount of armour they could carry. Infantry tanks such as the Valentine, on the other hand, operated alongside footsoldiers: they could be slower, but needed thick armour. Britain also used US tanks, some of which were modified.

Stowage bin

Track armour

l Valentine Mark IX Date 1942 Country UK Weight 17.3 tonnes (19 tons) Engine General Motors 6004 diesel, 138hp Main armament QF 6-pounder gun The most-produced British tank of World War II, Valentines were used in North Africa, the Pacific, and Eastern Europe. Highly versatile, it formed the basis for many specialized variants, such as a bridgelayer, Duplex Drive amphibious tank, and flame-thrower.

Coil-sprung suspension

Drive sprocket

6-pounder main gun

Cast hull

l Ram Date 1943 Country Canada Weight 29.5 tonnes (32.5 tons) Engine Wright-Continental R-975-C4 petrol, 400hp Main armament QF 6-pounder gun Canada started producing tanks in 1940, and after building 1,400 Valentines it began work on the Ram. The Ram used many features of the M3 medium tank, along with a Canadian-designed hull and turret. Nearly 2,000 were built and most were used to train tank crews.

 Churchill Mark VI Date 1943 Country UK Weight 40.6 tonnes (44.8 tons) Engine Bedford 12-cylinder petrol, 350hp Main armament QF 75mm gun

After extensive upgrades and improvements for better reliability, the Churchill Mark VI was very different from the Mark I (see pp.92–93). It was now armed with a 6-pounder or 75mm gun, and its armour protection was greatly improved. It was renowned for being able to climb seemingly impossible hills, and for shrugging off anti-tank fire.

Angled turret armour

75mm main gun

u Harry Hopkins Date 1943 Country UK Weight 8.6 tonnes (9.5 tons) Engine Meadows petrol, 148hp Main armament QF 2-pounder gun

The Harry Hopkins, as it was known, was a larger and better armoured variant of the Tetrarch (see pp.78–79). It used the same unusual steering technique, where the road wheels moved sideways and twisted the tracks. Unlike the Tetrarch, it was too heavy to be airlifted and saw no service.

Engine vent Muzzle brake

u Cromwell IV Date 1944 Country UK Weight 27.9 tonnes (30.8 tons) Engine Rolls-Royce Meteor Mark IB petrol, 600hp Main armament QF 75mm gun

A version of the Merlin aircraft powerplant, the Cromwell’s Meteor engine made it one of the fastest tanks of the war. This, and the tank’s low height, made it popular with the Armoured Reconnaissance Regiments in northwest Europe. However, it was outclassed by heavier German tanks. The Cromwell IV, shown here, was the most common variant produced.

Camouflage netting

Stowage bin

u Challenger A30 Date 1944 Country UK Weight 32 tonnes (35.3 tons)

u Comet Date 1944 Country UK Weight 33 tonnes (36.4 tons) Engine Rolls-Royce Meteor Mark III petrol, 600hp Main armament QF 77mm HV gun

r Sherman Firefly Date 1944 Country UK Weight 34.9 tonnes (38.4 tons) Engine Chrysler A57 Multibank petrol, 400hp Main armament QF 17-pounder gun The British upgraded the Sherman with the 17-pounder gun. Fireflys never fully replaced 75mm armed Shermans, as the 17-pounder was less effective against non-armoured targets. It was a priority target for the Germans, leading many crews to camouflage the long barrel. This is an M4A4 variant, with a longer hull due to the size of its engine.

Arguably the best British tank of the war, the Comet only reached the front lines in limited numbers in early 1945. It was more heavily armoured but its stronger suspension gave it similar mobility to the lighter Cromwell. The 77mm gun, which could fit in its smaller turret, was slightly less powerful than the 17-pounder.

Engine exhaust

Engine Rolls-Royce Meteor petrol, 600hp Main armament QF 17-pounder gun

The Challenger's 17-pounder gun was much more capable than previous British weapons, but also much larger. The tank’s hull was based on the Cromwell, but lengthened to support the wider and taller turret. Just 200 Challengers were built, and they were used to provide long-range anti-tank support to units using Cromwells.

QF 17-pounder main gun

96 . WORLD WAR II

Soviet Tanks: 1941–45

Armour impervious to anti-tank guns

A huge number of Soviet soldiers and tanks were lost in the first few months of the German invasion of the Soviet Union. Soviet tank factories were relocated east, beyond the Ural Mountains; until they were able to resume full operations, British and American tanks were also used. As the war progressed, production was standardized as much as possible in order to increase output. The tanks were accordingly simple, reflecting the limited skills of their crews, who were very often inexperienced or poorly trained. Tall, heavy turret

u Kliment Voroshilov-1 (KV-1) Date 1939 Country Soviet Union Weight 48.3 tonnes (53.2 tons) Engine Kharkiv Model V-2K diesel, 500hp Main armament 76.2mm ZiS-5 L/41.5 gun

A heavy tank, the KV-1 was virtually immune to the German anti-tank weapons of 1941. It was one of the few tanks to continue in production after the Soviet factories were relocated. It used the same engine and gun as the T-34, but, being heavier, had poorer mobility. Around 4,700 KV-1s were built before production halted in April 1943.

152mm howitzer

l Kliment Voroshilov-2 (KV-2) Date 1939 Country Soviet Union Weight 53.9 tonnes (59.4 tons) Engine Kharkiv Model V-2K diesel, 550hp Main armament 152mm M-10T L/20 howitzer

Torsion bar suspension

r T-34

One of the most important tanks in history, the T-34 began development as early as 1938. Wartime pressures Weight 31.4 tonnes (34.6 tons) precluded cosmetic considerations, Engine Kharkiv Model V-2-34 diesel, 500hp the focus being more on reducing Main armament 76.2mm F-34 L/41 gun cost and accelerating production. Date 1941 Country Soviet Union

45mm rear hull armour

After facing well fortified Finnish bunkers during 1939–40, the Soviets were convinced that a tank armed with an artillery piece was vital – and the KV-2 was their initial response. It was a good concept, but it failed to work in practice: the KV-2’s tall turret made the tank heavier, slower, and easier to target. Just 334 were built, production ending when the Germans invaded Russia in 1941.

 T-60

Engine exhaust

Date 1941 Country Soviet Union Weight 5.8 tonnes (6.4 tons) Engine GAZ-202 6-cylinder diesel, 70hp Main armament 20mm TNSh cannon Intended to replace the pre-war light tanks, the two-man T-60 was used as a reconnaissance vehicle. Early encounters with the Germans showed that it was under-gunned and too lightly armoured. Adding thicker armour reduced its mobility, and the turret was too small to take a larger gun. It was unpopular, and gave way to the T-70.

20mm TNSh cannon

uT-70 Date 1942 Country Soviet Union Weight 9.2 tonnes (10.1 tons) Engine 2 x GAZ-202 6-cylinder diesel, 70hp each Main armament 45mm ZiS-19BM gun

85mm ZiS S-53 gun

Rubber-clad road wheels

r T-34/85 Date 1944 Country Soviet Union Weight 32 tonnes (35.3 tons) Engine Kharkiv Model V-2-34 diesel, 500hp Main armament 85mm ZiS S-53 L/55 gun

Although more heavily armed and armoured than its predecessor (the T-60), the T-70 was still outclassed by the advanced German tanks. By 1943, the Soviets had realized that light tanks had no place on the battlefield, and relegated them to secondary roles. The SU-76 assault gun (see pp.110–11) was developed from the T-70 chassis.

External diesel fuel tanks

Despite its initial success, the T-34’s shortcomings were clear by late 1943. Its two-man turret was too cramped for the crew to work effectively, and the gun was no longer sufficiently powerful. The T-34/85 resolved both of these issues. It went on to have a long post-war career with the Soviets and their client states, with one used in Yemen as late as 2015.

76.2mm gun

Turret welded for greater protection

l Iosif Stalin-2 (IS-2) Date 1944 Country Soviet Union

122mm main gun

Weight 44.7 tonnes (49.3 tons) Engine Kharkiv Model V-2IS diesel, 520hp

74mm frontal hull armour

Main armament 122mm D-25T L/45 gun The need to face the threat of German Panthers and Tigers revitalized Soviet heavy tank production. The IS series was a development of the KV-1, with a new hull and transmission. On entering service, the IS-2 replaced both the IS-1 and the 85mm–armed KV-85, and became organized into separate Heavy Tank Regiments. These were used to spearhead attacks on German positions.

Wide tracks

r Iosif Stalin-3M (IS-3M)

Rounded “upturned soup-bowl” turret

Date 1945 Country Soviet Union Weight 46.5 tonnes (51.3 tons) Engine Kharkiv Model V-2IS diesel, 600hp Main armament 122mm D-25T L/45 gun

Christie suspension system

Limitations in the speed and armour of the IS-2 led to the development of the IS-3, which, although rushed into service, arrived too late for World War II. Initially it developed multiple mechanical problems, but these were resolved in the improved IS-3M model. The IS-3’s sloped sides gave better armour protection, and became a feature of post-war Soviet tank designs.

Diesel tanks

98 . WORLD WAR II

T-34/85 The T-34 was described as the “best tank in the world” by the German General Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist when his forces first encountered it in the summer of 1941. Its success was based partly on its design, and partly on its use in massive numbers, and it was able to defeat more technically advanced opposition vehicles.

THE T-34 WAS a powerfully armed and wellprotected medium tank designed by Mikhail Koshkin at the end of the 1930s (see pp.102–103) to replace the earlier BT series of fast tanks. Its ground-breaking design was influenced by lessons learned fighting the Japanese at Khalkhin Gol in 1939. It had thicker armour and a larger gun than its predecessors, and a diesel engine that was considered less of a fire risk than earlier petrol engines, which had been vulnerable to incendiary devices. During trials of the new tank in the spring of 1940, Koshkin caught pneumonia, of which he was to die in September – the same month that the first production tanks rolled out of the factory. Improvements to the design continued throughout the war, many of which intended to reduce production costs and times: the cost of a T-34 dropped from 269,500 to 135,000 roubles. This need for simplicity was partly driven by production facilities moving to new sites behind the Ural Mountains due to the advancing German armies. The T-34 went on to be made in Poland and Czechoslovakia, and tens of thousands of them saw service in armies worldwide. This version, the T-34/85, has an enlarged turret to house the commander, gunner, and loader, and is named after its upgraded 85mm gun.

SPECIFICATIONS Name

T-34/85

Date

1940

Origin

Soviet Union

Production

84,700

Engine

Model V-2-34 V12 diesel, 500hp

Weight

32 tonnes (35.3 tons)

Main armament

85mm ZiS-53

Secondary armament

2 x 7.62mm DT machine-guns

Crew

Armour thickness

Max 60mm (2.4in)

Gunner Loader Engine

Driver

Commander

REAR VIEW

T-3 4 /8 5 . 9 9

Commander’s cupola, added to later models

More powerful 85mm main gun

Co-axial machinegun operated by the co-driver

THREE-QUARTER VIEW Idler wheel set at the front

Road wheels rimmed with rubber

Battalion insignia This particular tank was deployed in the second company (2) of the first battalion, and was the command tank (number 11) of the first platoon. The small Russian letter on the right (“I” in English) is the initial of the first battalion’s commander, Ivanov.

Influential design When the T-34 first entered service in World War II, its armour and firepower were ground-breaking. However, its crews were not always sufficiently trained to operate it effectively.

100 . WORLD WAR II

EXTERIOR

The finish on early T-34 models was good, but standards dropped as production moved to improvised factories further east in Russia following the German invasion. The Red Army realised the crude cast marks on the turret made no difference to the tank’s fighting ability, so time was not wasted on removing them. The T-34’s armour consisted of homogenous rolled and welded nickel steel.

1. Regimental insignia of 4th Guards Tank Corps 2. Driver’s hatch (closed) 3. Co-driver’s machine-gun 4. Road wheels 5. Spare track links 6. Axle joint 7. Fuel cap 8. Commander’s (right) and gunner’s (left) hatches 9. Commander’s periscope 10. Fuel drum 11. Exhaust 12. Engine bay 4

T-3 4 /8 5 . 1 0 1 17

INTERIOR

Crew conditions inside the T-34 were very basic but functional. This was due in part to Soviet war philosophy, which saw the tank as a disposable munition, classiﬁed along with weapons such as hand grenades or shells. Correspondingly, wartime tanks had an estimated service life of only a few months, and crew comfort was not a priority. However, the T-34/85’s expanded turret allowed the crew slightly more room than earlier variants. 13. Looking down into commander’s position 14. Spare shells 15. Gunner’s periscope 16. Radio 17. Commander’s position showing main gun breech 18. Co-axial machine-gun 19. Main gun breech (open) 20. Barrel elevation handle 21. Turret traverse handle 22. Fire extinguisher release 23. Driver’s position 24. Instrument panel 25. Escape hatch 26. Instrument dials 27. Pressure pump 28. Gear lever

102 . WORLD WAR II

T-34 tanks under construction in a Soviet factory

Great designers

Mikhail Koshkin As the head of the design team at the Kharkov tank factory in the Ukraine, Mikhail Koshkin’s main legacy was the T-34, the medium tank that changed the course of World War II (see pp.98–101). Its background is rooted in the history of Soviet tank design.

UNDER JOSEPH STALIN’S option for international industrial leadership, the officials of the Soviet cooperation was with the other Union saw the tank as not only an European pariah, Germany, which important military asset, but also led to secret trials of German armoured a vital symbol of power – and just vehicles at a Soviet testing centre at like Adolf Hitler, the other major Kazan. As industrial experience and European dictator, Stalin took capacity grew with the Soviet Five personal interest in the matter, Year Plans, new tanks were imported influencing tank design and to copy and build under licence. production in his country. These included the Vickers Mark E Russia, and later the Soviet and Carden-Loyd tankettes from Mikhail Koshkin Union, had a comparatively slow Britain, and an example of J. Walter (1898–1940) start in tank manufacturing. During Christie’s M1931 wheel-cum-track World War I, no Russian tank designs vehicle from the US. The latter was saw production, but in the post-war period, designed so that its tracks could be removed and captured vehicles such as the French Renault it could run at speed on its wheels on roads. These FT-17 were copied in Russian factories. As in tanks became the basis of major tank production other European countries, the 1920s and ‘30s in the Soviet Union, leading to the design of the was a period of experimentation in armoured T-26, BT-2, and T-27 vehicles. vehicle design, but Soviet industrial experience Meanwhile, Mikhail Koshkin, who was born of with heavy vehicles was scarce. As it was a humble stock, had been drafted into the army in communist power, the Soviet Union’s only 1917 and sent to various fronts. He later studied at university and enrolled in technical college, ending up working in the Kirov factory in Leningrad on the T-29 and T-111 prototypes. By the time the Soviet military called for the development of a new replacement tank for the light BT series in 1937, Koshkin had risen to be the head of the design team at the Kharkov tank factory. He argued for abandoning wheel-cum-track vehicles, thickening vehicles’ armour protection, and increasing the firepower of the proposed new models. Despite internal arguments from rival factory teams and a lack of Red Army support, Koshkin presented his design directly to Stalin, who approved it. The vehicle became the famous T-34, a tank that began its service life with many mechanical and design issues – but successfully combined mobility, armour protection, and firepower. It was comparatively simple to manufacture and was produced in huge Soviet T-34s on the move numbers, proving a fearsome surprise for The T-34’s wide tracks and effective suspension gave it the ability to travel over muddy or snowy conditions. the invading German Wermacht in 1941.

T-34 tank being assembled in Leningrad The T-34 used J. Walter Christie’s coil spring suspension system, but dispensed with the “convertible” track of earlier models, which could be removed for road use.

However, the T-34 was not the only Soviet tank in development at the time. A rival design team led by S.J. Kotin designed a new heavy tank – the KV (named after Kliment Voroshilov, the People’s Commissar of Defence), which had heavy armour and the same 76mm gun as the T-34. Like Koshkin, Kotin and his team argued that the earlier fashion for multiple turreted tanks had to be abandoned, and the KV had same diesel engine as proposed for the T-34 tank, lessening ﬁre risks. Although the KV’s variants were produced in much smaller numbers than the T-34, they subsequently formed the basis of other tanks including the heavy IS (Josef Stalin) series. Perhaps the greatest achievement of Soviet tank manufacturing was the production of so many vehicles under such hardships. The German

MIKHAIL KOSHKIN . 103

“ Quantity has a quality all of its own.” ATTRIBUTED TO JOSEPH STALIN

Soviet war bond and stamp featuring the T-34 Koshkin’s design became an icon of Soviet military supremacy. Koshkin himself received various state honours posthumously, the last of them in 1990.

invasion not only led to the loss of huge numbers of tanks in battle, but also the need to move factories to relative safety behind the Ural Mountains. New and simpliﬁed production methods became a

necessity – workers produced tanks for the frontline using the most basic of factory facilities. Production costs went down, speed of manufacture increased, and a staggering 112,000 tanks of different types were made between 1940 and 1945. Koshkin himself died after contracting pneumonia while on a lengthy cross-country test-drive of the T-34 prototypes, and although

his contributions were only formally acknowledged years after his death, his T-34 was vital in the eventual defeat of Germany. Soviet tank factory Workers assemble an IS-2 heavy tank in 1943. The IS-2’s design was a deliberate move to a heavier gun than Koshkin’s T-34, whose effectiveness had spurred the arms race in tank design between Germany and the Soviet Union.

Preparing for battle Whatever their speciﬁcations and qualities, tanks are only as effective as the crews inside them. The work of the best engineers and designers, and the huge costs involved in manufacturing such complex machines, plus the trialing and issuing of the equipment, is all wasted if the crew is unable to work the tank effectively. History has shown that experienced, motivated, and well-trained crews working technically inferior tanks have beaten superior vehicles crewed by less experienced or less motivated men. As in many other areas of warfare, the effect of motivation, morale, belief, and leadership, however hard to quantify, is of huge importance to a tank crew, and can have an enormous effect on their performance in battle.

American crewmen, for instance, in late 1944 or early 1945, could find themselves fighting against far superior German tanks – and winning. Later analysis revealed that at this stage of the war German tank crews were indeed insufficiently trained, and so suffered in spite of their own technical superiority. Studies also show that the stress of combat often led men to seek help, guidance, and comfort in religion. Statistics reveal that soldiers’ reliance on prayer rose from 32 per cent to 74 per cent as the battle intensified. US chaplain Major George F. Daum leads Sherman tank crews in prayer before their advance into Germany in 1945.

106 . WORLD WAR II

German Tank Destroyers The earliest German tank destroyers used captured or obsolete light-tank hulls, with antitank guns ﬁtted on top. Usually open-topped, they were issued to the Panzerjäger, or anti-tank artillery soldiers, to replace towed guns, thus improving their mobility. By contrast, Germany’s Sturmgeschütz (“assault gun”) vehicles were not originally optimized for destroying tanks. Rather, they were infantry support vehicles operated by the artillery and armed with low-velocity guns. Combat experience forced them to adapt, and they were soon upgraded with anti-tank guns.

r StuG III Date 1940 Country Germany Weight 24.3 tonnes (26.8 tons) Engine Maybach HL120TRM petrol, 300hp Main armament 7.5cm StuK 40 L/48 gun

4.7cm PaK(t) gun

Panzer I hull

The ﬁrst StuGs were armed with the same short-barrelled 7.5cm L/24 gun as early Panzer IVs. The StuG’s low height and armour made it an ideal tank destroyer, and in 1942 the longer-barrelled L/48 gun was ﬁtted to optimize it for that role. With over 11,000 built, it was Germany’s most-produced armoured vehicle.

l Panzerjäger I Date 1940 Country Germany Weight 6.5 tonnes (7.2 tons) Engine Maybach NL38TR petrol, 100hp Main armament 4.7cm PaK(t) L/43.4 gun The ﬁrst German attempt to provide their forces with mobile anti-tank ﬁrepower, the Panzerjäger I matched captured Czech guns with the Panzer I hull. This was obsolete as a tank, but had much greater mobility than a towed gun. A total of 202 vehicles were built and used in France and North Africa.

Leaf spring suspension

 Marder I Date 1942 Country Germany Weight 8.4 tonnes (9.3 tons) Engine DelaHaye 103TT petrol, 70hp Main armament 7.5cm PaK 40 L/46 gun

In 1941 German anti-tank guns proved to be ineffective against heavily armoured Soviet tanks. The Marder vehicles were an urgent response to the German requirement to give greater mobility to their new PaK 40 towed gun by ﬁtting it to tracked vehicles. Marder I used the chassis of the French Lorraine 37L supply tractor.

7.5cm PaK 40/2 gun

Lorraine tractor chassis

Panzer II chassis

7.62cm PaK 36(r) gun

 Marder III Date 1942 Country Germany Weight 10.9 tonnes (12 tons) Engine Praga EPA/2 petrol, 140hp

 Marder II Date 1942 Country Germany Weight 11 tonnes (12.1 tons) Engine Maybach HL62TRM petrol, 140hp Main armament 7.5cm PaK 40/2 L/48 gun

The Marder II used the chassis of the Panzer II, which was obsolete as a tank. A total of 650 vehicles were built and armed with the PaK 40 gun. Another 200, called the Sd Kfz 132, were armed with captured Soviet 76.2mm F-22 ﬁeld guns that had been converted to anti-tank guns by the Germans.

Main armament 7.62cm PaK 36(r) L/51.5 gun The Marder III series was based on the Czech Panzer 38(t) (see pp.66–67). This version used the converted Russian F-22 gun, like the Sd Kfz 132 Marder II. A total of 344 examples of this variant were built. Although they were mainly used in the Soviet Union, 66 were also sent to North Africa.

G E R M A N TA N K D EST ROY E R S . 1 07

Idler at rear Torsion bar suspension

r Marder III Ausf H Date 1942 Country Germany Weight 11 tonnes (12.1 tons) Engine Praga EPA/2 petrol, 140hp Main armament 7.5cm PaK 40/3 L/46 gun

This variant of the Marder III had an improved superstructure that was lighter and provided better protection for the crew. Around 410 were built or converted from the standard tank. The Marder III was mainly used in the Soviet Union, where it performed best in defensive roles or as long-range ﬁre support.

Modiﬁed Panzer 38(t) chassis

Steeply sloped frontal armour

Fighting compartment at rear

l Marder III Ausf M Date 1943 Country Germany Weight 10.7 tonnes (11.8 tons) Engine Praha AC petrol, 140hp Main armament 7.5cm PaK 40/3 L/46 gun

Modiﬁed Panzer 38(t) chassis

r Brummbar Date 1943 Country Germany Weight 28.7 tonnes (31.6 tons) Engine Maybach HL120TRM petrol, 300hp Main armament 15cm StuH 43 L/12 howitzer

15cm StuH 43 howitzer

As StuGs were increasingly used as tank destroyers, there was still a need for an armoured infantry support vehicle that could ﬁre high-explosive shells, especially to deal with solidly built city buildings. This requirement was met by the StuG III derived StuH 42, and by the Brummbar, which was based on the Panzer IV.

The Ausf M used a modiﬁed Panzer 38(t) chassis that was designed to be used with self-propelled guns. The engine was moved to the centre, allowing the gun to be mounted at the rear. Like all the Marder vehicles, it was open-topped. A total of 975 were built.

108 . WORLD WAR II

German Tank Destroyers (cont.) Lacking complicated and expensive turrets, tank destroyers were quicker and cheaper to manufacture than conventional tanks. They could usually mount a more powerful gun on the same hull, and as the Germans retreated in the face of overwhelming Allied numbers and ﬁrepower, this became a distinct advantage. Later Jagdpanzers were fully armoured and generally based on heavy tank hulls. In the last months of the war, tank destroyers increasingly began to take the place of actual tanks.

r Nashorn (Hornisse) Date 1943 Country Germany Weight 24.4 tonnes (26.9 tons) Engine Maybach HL120TRM petrol, 300hp Main armament 8.8cm PaK 43/1 L/71 gun The Nashorn was an interim design that used a chassis developed from the Panzer IV. It was later renamed Hornisse, and was the ﬁrst German tank destroyer to mount the highly effective PaK 43 gun. The gun’s very long range allowed the vehicle to stand off from the enemy.

Augmented Panzer IV chassis 7.5cm StuK 40 gun

Modiﬁed PaK 43 gun

u StuG IV Date 1944 Country Germany Weight 23.4 tonnes (25.8 tons) Engine Maybach HL120TRM petrol, 300hp

u Ferdinand Date 1943 Country Germany Weight 66 tonnes (72.8 tons) Engine 2 x Maybach HL 120TRM petrol, 300hp each Main armament 8.8cm PaK 43/2 L/71 gun

Main armament 7.5cm StuK 40 L/48 The Ferdinand hull was an unsuccessful design for the Tiger tank. A total of 90 tanks were built, and they were ﬁtted with the PaK 43 in a fully enclosed and very heavily armoured superstructure. The ﬁrepower and armour served them well as anti-tank platforms, but their huge size and weight restricted their mobility.

7.5cm PaK 42 gun

u Jagdpanzer IV/70 Date 1944 Country Germany Weight 24.4 tonnes (26.9 tons) Engine Maybach HL120TRM petrol, 300hp Main armament 7.5cm PaK 42 L/70 gun Like the StuG IV, the Jagdpanzer IV was also based on the Panzer IV chassis. A total of 769 of the original vehicle were built. A dedicated tank hunter, it was armed with a PaK 39 L/48 gun. This version was ﬁtted with the longer and more powerful PaK 42 L/70, and replaced the earlier vehicle from 1944. Around 1,200 of these were built.

Hull based on Panzer 38(t)

Idler at rear

High demand for the StuG III meant that after a bombing raid on the factory, the Germans adapted the design for the Panzer IV chassis in order to maintain production. Around 1,140 Stug IVs were built. Both variants proved highly effective as defensive anti-tank vehicles.

G E R M A N TA N K D E S T R OY E R S ( C O N T. ) . 1 0 9

8.8cm PaK 43/3 gun

l Jagdpanther Date 1944 Country Germany Weight 46.7 tonnes (51.5 tons) Engine Maybach HL230P30 petrol, 700hp Main armament 8.8cm PaK 43/3 L/71 gun

The Jagdpanther was based on the Panther (see pp.72–73) chassis, and was well armoured, mobile, and possessed heavy ﬁrepower. It was a capable weapon, especially when used in ambush or defensive positions. However, only 392 were built, and they were plagued by poor maintenance and crew training. The Jagdpanther was thus too scarce to affect the course of the war.

12.8cm PaK 44 gun

Interleaved road wheels 10.65m (34ft 11in) long, including gun

 Jagdpanzer 38(t) Hetzer Date 1944 Country Germany Weight 16 tonnes (17.6 tons) Engine Praga AC/2 petrol, 150hp Main armament 7.5cm PaK 39 L/48 gun Using a hull based on the Panzer 38(t) (see pp.66–67), the Hetzer was smaller, lighter, and cheaper than other late-war Jagdpanzers. Due to its small size, it could easily hide and ambush enemy forces on the battleﬁeld. However, the Hetzer was not popular with its crews, who found it extremely cramped, with a poorly laid-out interior. Around 2,584 were built.

u Jagdtiger Date 1944 Country Germany Weight 71.1 tonnes (78.4 tons) Engine Maybach HL230P30 petrol, 700hp Main armament 12.8cm PaK 44 L/55 gun

The Jagdtiger was the heaviest armoured vehicle of World War II. It used the same suspension as the Tiger II (see pp.72–73), but had a longer hull. Its gun could defeat any Allied tank at long range. Many Jagdtigers were lost due to breakdowns, some being destroyed by their crews.

Torsion bar suspension

7.5cm PaK 39 gun

38cm mortar

u Sturmtiger Date 1944 Country Germany Weight 66 tonnes (72.8 tons) Engine Maybach HL230P45 petrol, 700hp Main armament 38cm Stu M RW61 L/5.4 mortar

Sprocket wheel at front

An assault gun based on the Tiger chassis, the Sturmtiger was heavily armoured in order to survive close-range street ﬁghting. Its powerful rocketassisted mortar gave it devastating ﬁrepower, but the round’s huge size meant that only 14 could be carried. Only 18 Sturmtigers were ever built.

110 . WORLD WAR II

Allied Tank Destroyers

r M10 Date 1942 Country USA Weight 29.5 tonnes (32.5 tons)

There was a clear difference in design between Soviet and US tank destroyers and assault guns. The Soviets favoured turretless vehicles for the same reasons as the Germans: they were quicker and cheaper to build, and could mount a larger gun and heavier armour than the tank they were based on. American tank destroyers, meanwhile, were intended to be used in counter-attacks, outmanoeuvring enemy tanks; they emphasized mobility over protection, and kept the more versatile turret. In reality, both countries used them as artillery pieces and to support infantry.

Engine General Motors 6046 diesel, 375hp Main armament 3in M7 L/40 gun The M10 was based on the M4A2 Sherman chassis, and the M10A1 used the petrol-engined M4A3, easing logistics. Both were lightly armoured with an open-topped turret to enhance mobility and situational awareness. Around 6,500 were built. Many vehicles supplied to the UK were later upgunned with the 17-pounder, renamed the Achilles.

Vertical volute suspension

Main gun muzzle brake

 SU-76M Date 1943 Country Soviet Union

Rubber-rimmed road wheels

122mm howitzer

Weight 10.4 tonnes (11.4 tons)

l SU-122

Engine 2 x GAZ-203 6-cylinder diesel, 85hp each

Date 1943 Country Soviet Union Weight 30.9 tonnes (34 tons)

Main armament 76.2mm ZiS-3Sh L/42.6 gun

Engine Kharkiv Model V-2-34 diesel, 500hp

With over 12,600 built, the SU-76M was the second most-produced Soviet armoured vehicle of the war. Based on a stretched T-70 light tank chassis, it was used as a light assault gun and mobile artillery piece, and had the capability to destroy lighter German tanks. Although popular with the infantry, its light armour and open top left its crew exposed.

Classed as a medium assault gun, the SU-122 was built on the T-34 chassis. It mounted a direct fire weapon mainly intended for use against fortifications. Its firepower and armour made the SU-122 a popular infantry support weapon. Around 1,100 were built. The upgraded SU-85 tank destroyer used the same design armed with an 85mm D-5S gun.

Main armament 122mm M-30S L/23 howitzer

A L L I E D TA N K D EST ROY E R S . 1 1 1

Gun points to the rear

l Valentine Archer Date 1943 Country UK Weight 16.3 tonnes (17.9 tons)

3in main gun

Engine General Motors 6-71M diesel, 192hp Main armament QF 17-pounder gun

In 1943, the Valentine was the only available tank chassis that could be ﬁtted with the powerful 17-pounder for use as a tank destroyer. However, the gun’s size meant that the only way it could be made to ﬁt was by pointing it to the rear. Despite this, Archers were reliable and effective.

Serial number

r M18 Hellcat Date 1943 Country USA Weight 17.8 tonnes (19.6 tons) Engine Wright-Continental R-975 petrol, 400hp Main armament 76mm M1A2 L/52 gun

One of the fastest ever armoured vehicles, the M18 was well suited to the US tank destroyer doctrine. However, its speed and mobility – enhanced by very thin armour and torsion bar suspension – proved to be of limited value, and its ﬁrepower was inadequate against the heaviest German tanks.

Heavily armoured mantlet

l ISU-152 Date 1944 Country Soviet Union

Arctic camouﬂage

Weight 47.2 tonnes (52.1 tons) Engine Kharkiv Model V-2IS diesel, 520hp Main armament 152mm ML-20S L/29 gun-howitzer The chassis of Soviet heavy tanks formed the basis for a series of heavy assault guns. The SU-152 was built on the KV-1S, while the very similar ISU-152 used the later IS chassis. A shortage of 152mm barrels led to another variation – the 122mm-armed ISU-122. These vehicles were held in separate units to support attacks and breakthroughs. Their devastating ﬁrepower made them popular in urban ﬁghting.

Spare track links on hull

r M36 Date 1944 Country USA Weight 29 tonnes (31.9 tons) Engine Ford GAA V8 petrol, 500hp

90mm main gun

Main armament 90mm M3 L/53 gun A development of the M10A1 with heavier ﬁrepower but similar armour and mobility, the M36 proved its worth in combat. It could knock out the heaviest German tanks at long range. High demand led to versions based on the diesel M10 and the unmodiﬁed M4A3 hull. Around 2,300 were built in total.

External fuel tank

Commander's cupola

l SU-100 Date 1944 Country Soviet Union Weight 31.5 tonnes (34.7 tons) Engine Kharkiv Model V-2-34 diesel, 500hp Main armament 100mm D-10S L/53.5 gun The design of SU-85 was upgraded to become the SU-100. Both vehicles provided long range anti-tank support to formations and were also held in reserve to defend against the heaviest German tanks. Around 1,200 were built during the war. Production and upgrades continued afterwards, and the vehicle remained in service around the world for decades.

112 . WORLD WAR II

M18 Hellcat The M18 Hellcat was one of a series of fast, lightly armoured, but powerfully armed US anti-tank vehicles. It was designed according to the American tank destroyer doctrine formulated before World War II: tanks supported an infantry attack, and if enemy tanks attacked, fast tank destroyers such as the Hellcat would rush to the breakthrough to destroy the enemy tanks, using speed to avoid enemy ﬁre.

THE HELLCAT was designed by Buick and was ﬁtted with the powerful Wright R-975 radial engine. This, combined with its thin armour and open-topped turret (standard on all American tank destroyers), meant it weighed less than 18 tonnes (20 tons) and was very fast, capable of up to 80km/h (50mph) on a road. It carried the 76mm high velocity gun that was also mounted on REAR VIEW the later model Sherman tanks. The Hellcat saw combat service in Europe after D-Day but struggled to defeat the thicker front armour of later German tanks such as the Panther. High Velocity Armour Piercing (HVAP) ammunition gave a better chance of penetration, but was in short supply. A muzzle brake was added to the gun to help reduce dust from its blast; this was ﬁtted to the last 700 of the 1,857 Hellcats built as tank destroyers. Another 650 unarmed variants, the M39, were made or converted to act as ammunition or troop carriers. Some of these saw service in the Korean War.

SPECIFICATIONS Name

M18 Hellcat

Date

1942

Origin

USA

Production

1,857

Engine

Wright-Continental R-975 petrol, 400hp

Weight

17.8 tonnes (19.6 tons)

Main armament

76mm M1 or M1A2

Secondary armament

.50 Browning M2 machine-gun

Crew

Armour thickness

25mm (1in) max Commander

Co-driver Gunner Loader Driver

M 1 8 H E L LCAT . 1 1 3

Transmission front cover plate

Torsion bar suspension

THREE-QUARTER VIEW

Rubber tracks

Tank destroyer The M18 Hellcat could easily be mistaken for a tank, but it was designed as a fast, thinly-armoured carrier for an anti-tank gun. It relied on speed rather than armour to protect itself.

“Seek… Strike… Destroy” This was the badge of the US Tank Destroyer forces. Over 100 tank destroyer battalions were formed during World War II.

Bridging weight badge The Hellcat had a bridging weight of 18 tonnes (20 tons), indicated by this insignia. It was extremely light for such a heavily armed vehicle.

114 . WORLD WAR II 15

EXTERIOR Many American vehicles such as the Hellcat used common components, a feature that was noticed by German commander Erwin Rommel in Tunisia when he ﬁrst encountered American forces. Interchangable parts such as headlamps meant that fewer items were required in the supply chain, helping with the logistic burden of supplying an army in the ﬁeld.

1. Allied recognition symbol 2. Klaxon 3. Headlamp 4. Fuel ﬁller cover 5. Main gunsight aperture 6. Gunner’s periscope 7. Commander’s machine-gun 8. Gun cleaning rods stowed on hull 9. Crewman’s stowage 10. Machine-gun tripod for ground use 11. Shovel stowed on hull 12. Return roller under top of track 13. Rear light 14. Engine bay 6

M 1 8 H E L LCAT . 1 1 5

INTERIOR The Hellcat was designed so that the co-driver also had a set of controls, enabling him to take over driving the vehicle if necessary. It is also notable for its open-topped turret, which was not unique to the Hellcat but contributed greatly to its light weight. The disadvantage of this layout was that the turret crew were vulnerable to shrapnel and enemy gunﬁre, particularly from snipers in elevated positions.

15. Overhead view of ﬁghting compartment 16. Main gun breech 17. Ammunition stowage 18. Azimuth indicator 19. Gunsight eyepiece 20. Gun elevation wheel 21. Clinometer measures angle for indirect ﬁre 22. Direction of travel indicator 23. Driver’s controls 24. Radio and intercom equipment 25. Driver’s seat 26. Driver’s position 27. Driver’s instrument panel 28. Gear lever

116 . WORLD WAR II

Engineering and Specialist Vehicles After the failed Dieppe Raid of 1942 exposed the difﬁculty of landing vehicles during an amphibious invasion, Allied commanders knew that getting tanks across the beaches of France would be a challenge. The job of developing suitable vehicles was given to Percy Hobart, the commander of the British 79th Armoured Division. Known as “Hobart’s Funnies”, these vehicles were based on tank hulls, which gave them similar mobility and protection, and made logistics easier. They were used in northwest Europe, Italy, and the Far East.

Turret with searchlight

u Matilda CDL

r Valentine Bridgelayer

Date 1940 Country UK

Date 1943 Country UK

Weight 26.9 tonnes (29.7 tons)

Weight 19.9 tonnes (20 tons)

Engine 2 x AEC 6-cylinder diesel, 95hp each

Engine AEC A189 petrol, 135hp

Main armament None The Canal Defence Light (CDL) was an attempt to dazzle the enemy during night ﬁghting. The turret of the Matilda contained a 13-million candle power searchlight that ﬂickered at a frequency that increased the blinding effect.

Main armament None The ﬁrst bridgelaying tanks were developed at the end of World War I, but it was not until World War II that they were used. The Scissors Bridge shown here could span a 9.2m (30ft) gap and support 30 tonne (33 tons) vehicles.

Mine housed in vehicle body

d Churchill Crocodile u Goliath tracked mine Date 1943 Country Germany Weight 0.4 tonnes (0.5 tons) Engine Zundapp SZ7 petrol, 12.5hp Main armament 100kg (220lb) explosive

Trailer for carrying fuel

Just 1.63m (5.3ft) long and 0.62m (2ft) tall, the Goliath was effectively a small bomb. It was remotely controlled by a 650m (2,130ft)-long wire, which allowed its operator to remain in cover. It was intended to be used against fortifications or to clear minefields, but was vulnerable to small arms fire and rough terrain.

Date 1943 Country UK Weight 40.6 tonnes (44.8 tons) Engine Bedford Twin-Six petrol, 350hp Main armament Flame-thrower, 75mm QF gun

A flame-thrower is extremely effective against fortifications, and mounting one onto a tank enables the latter to survive enemy fire as it closes in. The Churchill Crocodile was one such vehicle; a fully operational gun tank with a trailer for carrying fuel. Crocodiles attracted heavy enemy fire, but their presence often persuaded German forces to surrender.

117

Turret houses 290mm mortar

Scissors Bridge folded on tank

u Churchill AVRE

The Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers (AVRE) was a highly versatile version of the Churchill developed after the Dieppe Weight 39.6 tonnes (43.7 tons) Landings to allow engineers to work under Engine Bedford 12-cylinder petrol, 350hp armour protection. It was armed with a Main armament 290mm Petard Mortar short-range mortar to destroy fortiﬁcations. Date 1943 Country UK

Hydraulic arm unfolds bridge

Chain ﬂails detonate mines

u Sherman V Crab Date 1943 Country USA Weight 32.2 tonnes (35.5 tons) Engine Chrysler A57 Multibank petrol, 425hp Main armament 75mm M3 L/40 gun

Canvas screen provides buoyancy

u Sherman III Duplex Drive Date 1943 Country USA Weight 32.2 tonnes (35.5 tons) Engine General Motors 6046 diesel, 375hp Main armament 75mm M3 L/40 gun

Fully combat-capable, the Sherman III (an M4A2 in this case) was ﬁtted with propellers and a canvas screen, allowing it to be driven in water. It was developed to support the infantry in the ﬁrst waves of the D-Day invasion. The canvas screen provided buoyancy although they were vulnerable in the rough sea.

Dummy gun

u Churchill Armoured Recovery Vehicle (ARV) Date 1944 Country UK Weight 33.5 tonnes (37 tons) Engine Bedford Twin-Six petrol, 350hp Main armament None

Clearing mineﬁelds was a dangerous job, both because of the mines and because they were usually protected by enemy ﬁre. Flail tanks, such as this Sherman V Crab, had to move in a straight line at less than 3.2km/h (2mph), while the rotating chains beat the ground with enough force to set off any mines.

Crane on rear

The armoured recovery vehicle allowed the mechanics of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (REME) the mobility and protection to move around the battleﬁeld and repair disabled vehicles. It carried a crane for removing engines, towing gear, and tools and equipment needed to repair damaged tank components.

118 . WORLD WAR II

Experimental Vehicles The pressures of war saw a large number of tank designs being developed, with many never seeing service. Some were rendered obsolete due to advances in technology, or cancelled because the war ended before they could be developed. Others were abandoned because existing vehicles, while perhaps not as capable as the replacement, were good enough, and the delays to production that would be caused by introducing a new type of tank were seen as unacceptable.

u TOG II* Date 1941 Country UK Weight 81.3 tonnes (89.6 tons) Engine Paxman Ricardo 12-cylinder diesel, 600hp Main armament QF 17-pounder gun

Created by the men responsible for the first tank in 1915, “The Old Gang” (TOG) was designed to operate on a World War I-style battleﬁeld. It was large, heavy, and slow. Combat experience in World War II showed that the TOG was no longer suited to modern warfare.

Armoured mantlet

Lifting lug

Firing port

u M7

Vertical volute suspension

Date 1942 Country USA Weight 24.4 tonnes (26.9 tons)

u T14

Engine Wright Continental R-975 petrol, 400hp

Date 1943 Country USA

Main armament 75mm M3 L/40 gun

Weight 38.1 tonnes (42 tons)

Originally designed as a 12.7 tonne (14 ton) light tank, the M7 grew signiﬁcantly in size during development. It was reclassiﬁed as a medium tank, but this placed it in competition with the M4 Sherman (see pp.86–89). The M4 was a superior vehicle and was already in production, so the M7 was abandoned after only seven were built.

Spare track links

Tow cable

Engine Ford GAZ V8 petrol, 520hp Main armament 75mm M3 L/40 gun

Intended as a heavy Infantry or assault tank for both American and British forces, the T14 used many Sherman components. Two pilot models were built. Testing showed they were too heavy for practical battleﬁeld use, and did not offer sufﬁcient improvement over the Sherman and Churchill to be worth pursuing.

Fixed mantlet instead of turret

E X P E R I M E N TA L V E H I C L ES . 1 1 9

r Valiant Date 1944 Country UK Weight 27.4 tonnes (30.8 tons) Engine General Motors 6-71M diesel, 210hp Main armament QF 75mm gun

The Valiant was developed as an infantry assault tank for the Far East, but trials of the single prototype revealed that it was too slow, with poor ground clearance that damaged the suspension. Moreover, the driver’s compartment was too cramped, which aggravated the risk of injury from its controls. It is considered to be one of the worst tanks ever built.

Driver's compartment

Light armour to keep weight down

Drive sprocket at rear

Individually sprung wheel suspension

 Black Prince Date 1945 Country UK Weight 50.8 tonnes (56 tons)

 Tortoise

Engine Bedford Type 120 petrol, 350hp

Date 1945 Country UK

Main armament QF 17-pounder gun

Weight 79.3 tonnes (87.4 tons) Engine Rolls-Royce Meteor Mark 5 petrol, 600hp

Muzzle brake

Main armament QF 32-pounder gun

Heavily armed and armoured, the Tortoise could both outgun and outlast the heaviest German vehicles. It was originally intended to be used as an assault vehicle against German fortiﬁcations. It sacriﬁced mobility, with a top speed of just 19.3km/h (12mph) on road. Six were built before the end of the war.

32-pounder main gun

The Black Prince was a larger and heavier version of the Churchill that could mount the 17-pounder gun. The thickness of the armour remained unchanged, as did the engine, which led to a reduced top speed. Wider tracks and an improved suspension restored some mobility.

Small road wheels

105mm main gun Ring mount for external machine-gun

Torsion bar suspension

u T28 Date 1945 Country USA Weight 86.2 tonnes (95 tons) Engine Ford GAF V8 petrol, 500hp Main armament 105mm T5E1 L/65 gun

Designed to attack the strong defences of the German Siegfried Line, the T28 was the heaviest tank ever built in the US. It used the same Horizontal Volute Suspension System (HVSS) as later Shermans in a twin track arrangement. Only two were built, before the end of the war left them without a role.

The tank in peace and war Like all weapons, the tank can be viewed in many different ways. All too often it is seen as a symbol of oppression, invasion, and menace – for many, however, precisely the opposite is true. Here, for example, on the ruined streets of Flers, Normandy, soon after the D-Day landings of June 1944, the tank is a bringer of liberation; the ﬂags are out and the population are welcoming the troops. Such differing views of the tank were already clear in World War I, almost as soon as the tank was invented. On the British Home Front, toys, teapots, a handbag, all kinds of souvenirs and even a dance paid homage to the vehicle that had turned the tide on Germany. At last, Britain was ahead of the country

that had been the first to use airpower when it bombed London and the first to use poison gas on the battlefield. Subsequently, the tank became a huge success in raising money for the war effort and many were sent on tour around Britain. For the Germans, on the other hand, by late 1918 the appearance of a tank on the battlefield simply gave exhausted and demoralized soldiers an excuse to surrender. As Hindenburg said: “that they could cross our undamaged trenches and obstacles did not fail to have a marked effect on our troops”. A British-crewed Sherman tank makes its way through the ruins of Flers, Normandy, in 1944. A bulldozer clears rubble in the background.

122 . WORLD WAR II

Armoured Cars and Troop Carriers

r Sd Kfz 231 Schwerer

World War II saw the widespread use of armoured vehicles in a variety of roles. Scout Cars, Light Reconnaissance Cars, and Armoured Cars were used for reconnaissance and to provide armoured support to infantry. Some carried light ﬁrepower, while other variants were as well-armed as contemporary tanks. Their main role was to ﬁnd the enemy and survive to report back, so binoculars, a radio, and good tactics were their main weapons.

Main armament 2cm KwK 30 L/55 cannon

Panzerspahwagen, 8-rad Date 1936 Country Germany Weight 8.4 tonnes (9.3 tons) Engine Bussing-NAG L8V petrol, 155hp

The pre-war 6x4 Panzerspahwagens lacked sufﬁcent cross-country mobility, and were replaced by these eight-wheeled vehicles. Their roles and armament remained the same, and they kept the rear driver’s position. Some variants carried the large “bedstead” radio aerial, while others were upgraded with a 7.5cm KwK 37 gun.

External frontal armour

Driver’s compartment

 Sd Kfz 251/8 Mittlere Krankenpanzerwagen Ausf C Date 1939 Country Germany Weight 7.9 tonnes (8.7 tons) Engine Maybach HL42 TUKRM petrol, 100hp Main armament None

Interleaved road wheels

r Universal Carrier, Mark II Date 1939 Country UK Weight 4 tonnes (4.4 tons) Engine Ford ﬂathead V8 petrol, 85hp Main armament .303 Bren machine-gun One of the most-produced armoured vehicles in history, the Universal Carrier descended from the Carden-Loyd (see pp.46–47). A number of different carriers were developed and amalgamated into one "universal" design. Highly versatile, it was used to carry machine-guns, mortars, infantrymen, supplies and artillery observation equipment, among other roles. Carriers were popular with the infantry and in high demand.

Front-mounted idler wheel

Designed as an armoured personnel carrier for German Panzergrenadiers to accompany the tanks, this vehicle had a capacity to carry 10 infantrymen. It was well-armoured, but open-topped, and its half-track design gave it good crosscountry mobility. More than 15,000 of these were built, including around 2,500 in post-war Czechoslovakia.

ARMOURED CARS AND TROOP CARRIERS . 123

l M3A1 Date 1940 Country USA Weight 4.1 tonnes (4.5 tons) Engine Hercules JXD petrol, 87hp Main armament None

Body armoured on sides only

The M3 was a durable and reliable four-wheel scout car with an open-topped, armoured body. It was widely used by the Americans, British, and Soviets to ferry troops, as well as other roles such as ambulance, command, and forward observation. The roller at the front of the vehicle helped prevent it from ditching.

Fuel cans Armoured vision port

r Daimler Mark II Date 1940 Country UK Weight 3 tonnes (3.4 tons) Engine Daimler 6HV petrol, 55hp Main armament None Popularly known as the Dingo, this scout car was a small, two-man vehicle with very high mobility due to its transmission design, which it shared with the Daimler Armoured Car. Early Dingos had four-wheel steering and a sliding armoured roof, but both features were later removed. The solid rubber tyres, however, were retained. Around 6,600 were built and they were very popular.

Driver’s vision port Armoured body offered only limited protection

l Humber Scout Car Date 1942 Country UK Weight 3.5 tonnes (3.8 tons) Engine Humber 5-cylinder petrol, 87hp Main armament .303 Bren machine-gun Although the Dingo was the standard British scout car, wartime demand meant that other companies were tasked with producing similar vehicles. Around 4,300 vehicles were built by Humber. Later during the war, Dingos were mainly used by the infantry, with Humbers generally allocated to armoured units.

Pneumatic tyres

Turret houses 7.62mm machine-gun

r BA-64 Date 1942 Country Soviet Union Weight 2.3 tonnes (2.6 tons) Engine GAZ-MM 4-cylinder petrol, 50hp Main armament 7.62mm DT machine-gun A light, two-man, 4x4 armoured car, the BA-64 was used by the Soviet forces for reconnaissance, liaison, and communication, and supporting the infantry. Unlike most Allied armoured cars, only a few BA-64 had a radio. The angles and placement of the armour offered greater protection than its thickness would suggest.

124 . WORLD WAR II

Armoured Cars and Troop Carriers (cont.)

Angled crew compartment

Armoured half-tracks were used by Allied and Axis nations to carry infantry across country and under ﬁre. Being versatile, they were used for different roles, including as platforms for anti-tank or anti-aircraft guns, towing vehicles for artillery, ambulances, maintenance workshops, and command vehicles. Fully tracked support vehicles were less common, but the popular Universal Carrier saw extensive use. Towards the end of the war, the Ram Kangaroo pioneered the concept of the fully tracked armoured personnel carrier.

u Praying Mantis

Machine-gun tripod stowed on hull

Date 1943 Country UK Weight 5.3 tonnes (5.8 tons) Engine Ford ﬂathead V8 petrol, 85hp Main armament 2 x .303 Bren machine-guns

l M8 Greyhound Date 1943 Country USA Weight 7.4 tonnes (8.2 tons) Engine Hercules JXD petrol, 110hp Main armament 37mm M6 L/56.6 gun

d M5 half-track Date 1943 Country USA Weight 9.9 tonnes (10.9 tons) Engine IHC RED-450-B petrol, 141hp Main armament .50 Browning M2 machine-gun

Continuous track at rear

The Allies used the M2 and M9 as artillery tractors, and the M3 and M5 as armoured personnel carriers. Both were put to a wide range of other uses during the war, including recovery, command, and ambulance. Israel used these vehicles for decades after 1945.

The Praying Mantis was a failed attempt to produce a very low-profile weapon carrier. The two-man crew lay prone inside the body, which could be elevated by hydraulics to see and fire over cover. Although innovative, it was difficult to operate and made the crew sick.

The M8 was originally designed as a wheeled tank destroyer, but it soon became a reconnaissance vehicle because of its light armament. Its six-wheel drive gave it a high speed on roads, but its suspension limited it across country. The M8 was opentopped and thinly armoured.

.50 Browning machine-gun

125

2-pounder main gun

Rear-mounted engine

l Marmon-Herrington, Mark IV Date 1943 Country South Africa Weight 6.7 tonnes (7.4 tons) Engine Ford V8 petrol, 95hp Main armament QF 2-pounder gun The Mark IV bore little resemblance to earlier Marmon-Herringtons. Its engine was now at the rear, and it had no separate chassis. It was more heavily armed, with a 2-pounder. By 1943, the North African Campaign had ended, so the Mark IV was used in Italy instead. It saw combat one ﬁnal time in 1974, during the Turkish invasion of Cyprus.

Pneumatic tyres

Canvas canopy

Aerial mount

u Fox Armoured Car Date 1943 Country Canada Weight 8.1 tonnes (9 tons) Engine General Motors 270 petrol, 97hp Main armament .50 Browning M2 machine-gun

The Fox was a Canadian-built version of the British Humber Armoured Car, based on the standard Canadian Military Pattern truck chassis and armed with more easily obtainable American machine-guns. Around 1, 500 were built, and they were used in Italy and India.

u CT15TA Armoured Truck Date 1943 Country Canada Weight 4.6 tonnes (5 tons) Engine General Motors 270 petrol, 100hp Main armament None

Like the Fox Armoured Car, the CT15TA was based on the Canadian Military Pattern truck chassis. It was used as a troop carrier and an ambulance, as well as a load carrier, but was not intended as a front-line vehicle.

l Sd Kfz 234/3 Schwerer

7.5cm main gun

Panzerspahwagen, 8-rad Date 1944 Country Germany Weight 11.7 tonnes (12.9 tons) Engine Tatra 103 diesel, 220hp

External kit stowage

Main armament 7.5cm Kwk 51 L/24 gun The Sd Kfz 234 replaced the Sd Kfz 231 in 1944. It had more advanced suspension and steering, giving greater mobility, as well as a more powerful engine and thicker armour. There were four variants, with different armament. This version was used against fortiﬁcations and area targets to support other variants, which were armed with dedicated anti-tank guns.

Pneumatic tyres at front

u Ram Kangaroo Date 1944 Country Canada Weight 24.9 tonnes (27.4 tons) Engine Wright-Continental R-975 petrol, 400hp Main armament .30 Browning M1919 machine-gun

Kangaroo was the name given to a number of different tanks converted to carry infantry. Most were based on the Ram. They were used in Italy and Northwest Europe. Each could carry 11 soldiers. The development of the Kangaroo was driven by the Canadian forces.

1945–1991

THE COLD WAR

THE COLD WAR . 129

THE COLD WAR After World War II it was clear that the tank had a dominant, but not invincible, place on the battlefield. Shaped-charge warheads fired from cheap, lightweight weapons presented a major threat even to the heaviest tanks, and this prompted many manufacturers to stress mobility over armour as the best form of protection. The tanks of the Cold War adversaries first faced each other during the Korean War, but that conflict saw few tank battles as such, with armoured vehicles being used mainly as infantry support. Likewise, both the American forces in Vietnam and the Soviet forces in Afghanistan deployed large numbers of armoured vehicles, but they rarely faced enemy tanks. Indeed, the largest tank battles of the Cold War did not involve the superpowers at all. Some battles of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, for instance, involved hundreds of tanks on each side. The Israeli experience of the Six Day War of 1967 and the Yom Kippur War of 1973 spurred critical developments in tank design. High Israeli losses to anti-tank missiles accelerated work on new methods to protect against shaped charges, including Explosive Reactive Armour, which was developed by the Soviet Union and Israel, and British Chobham armour, made of layers of different materials. During the 1980s, a new generation of tanks incorporating this armour, and systems such as computerized fire control and thermal night sights took to the field. Many of these tanks proved u Vietnamese pride themselves in the First Gulf War in 1991, where A nationalist poster celebrates the victory of Vietnam over its former colonial masters their superiority over older Soviet vehicles was with an image showing tanks leading the country to freedom. clearly demonstrated.

“ Victory is no longer a truth. It is only a word to describe who is left alive in the ruins.” LYNDON B. JOHNSON, PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES

 A Soviet propaganda poster depicts Stalin (left) standing over an army led by columns of invincible-seeming tanks.

Key events r 1945 The Soviet IS-3 Heavy Tank takes part in the Allied Victory Parade in Berlin, alarming Western observers. r 1950 The outbreak of the Korean War generates a “tank panic” in the US, accelerating the development of new vehicles. r 1956 Soviet tanks are involved in street ﬁghting during the crushing of the Hungarian Revolution. Several are destroyed with improvised weapons. r 1965 India stops a Pakistani invasion at the Battle of Asal Uttar. Pakistan loses 99 of over 250 tanks; India loses 10.

u M48 Patton in Vietnam Vietnamese rangers are covered by a US M48 Patton during a battle in the Cholon district of Saigon during the Vietnam War.

r 1972 Centurion AVREs demolish IRA barricades during Operation Motorman, the largest operation during the Troubles in Northern Ireland. r 1973 On the Golan Heights, a force of just 170 Israeli Centurions stall an invasion of over 1,200 Syrian tanks. r 1980 The American M1 Abrams enters service, the first tank to be fitted with Chobham armour. r 1982 During the Lebanon War, the Israelis make the first use of Explosive Reactive Armour. r 1991 At the Battle of 73 Easting, during the First Gulf War, US tanks destroy some of Iraq’s most capable forces, despite being vastly outnumbered.

130 . THE COLD WAR

Tanks of the Communist Bloc Soon after the end of World War II, the Soviet Union introduced the T-54. This was the ﬁrst of a series of tanks that were produced in massive numbers and exported to the Warsaw Pact and Communist client states around the world. Soviet doctrine envisaged using tanks, supported by artillery and infantry, to break through front-line defences and making long advances into the enemy’s rear positions. This inﬂuenced their design, which emphasized mobility and low height so that the tanks would be harder to hit. As a result, their crews usually found them cramped and uncomfortable.

u T-54 Date 1947 Country Soviet Union Weight 36 tonnes (39.6 tons) Engine V-54 V12 diesel, 520hp Main armament 100mm D-10T L/53.5 riﬂed gun

r PT-76 Date 1951 Country Soviet Union Weight 14.6 tonnes (16.1 tons) Engine Model V-6 diesel, 240hp Main armament 76.2mm 2A16 L/42 riﬂed gun

The T-54 is one of the most produced armoured vehicles in history. It moved away from Christie suspension, opting for torsion bars instead, and was armed with the 100mm gun that proved its worth on the SU-100. The T-54 saw combat in Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Europe.

Commander and loader stations in turret

A light tank, the PT-76 was able to swim with the help of two water jets. This made it highly mobile and versatile, but its buoyancy requirements resulted in a large hull and thin armour that could barely protect the tank against heavy machine-guns.

Light armour gives vehicle buoyancy

Extractor prevents propellant gases from entering the tank 100mm L/53.5 riﬂed gun

Elongated hull

Spare track links

u T-10M Date 1952 Country Soviet Union Weight 52 tonnes (57.3 tons) Engine Kharkiv Model V-2-IS diesel, 700hp Main armament 122mm M-62-T2 L/46 riﬂed gun

r T-55 Date 1958 Country Soviet Union Weight 36 tonnes (39.6 tons) Engine V-55 V12 diesel, 580hp Main armament 100mm D-10T2S L/53.5 riﬂed gun

The last of the KV and IS line of heavy tanks, the T-10 had a short career, made obsolete by the development of the main battle tank. The Soviets used heavy tanks in independent battalions that were attached to larger units to provide extra combat power where needed. The last T-10s were withdrawn by the late 1960s, and replaced with the T-64.

Unlike the T-54, the T-55 had a Nuclear, Biological, Chemical (NBC) warfare protection system and a more powerful engine. Its production continued until 1981, with upgrades incorporating more modern systems, such as laser rangeﬁnders and new sights. Many countries developed their own upgrades to keep it viable into the 21st century.

131

r Type 59 Date 1959 Country China Weight 36 tonnes (39.6 tons) Engine 12150L V12 diesel, 520hp Main armament 105mm L7 riﬂed gun

Originally based on the T-54, the Type 59’s development has diverged signiﬁcantly, incorporating Chinese and Western systems. This version, a Type 59-II, has a British-designed gun, NBC protection, and a gun stabilization system.

Smoothbore main gun

Exhaust capable of making a smokescreen

l T-62 Date 1962 Country Soviet Union Weight 38 tonnes (41.9 tons) Engine V-55-5 V12 diesel, 580hp Main armament 115mm 2A20 L/49.5 smoothbore gun

Fighting compartment at front of tank

The T-55 evolved into the T-62, which had a larger hull and more powerful 115mm gun. It was the first smoothbore gun to enter service and the first to fire Armour Piercing Fin Stabilized Discarding Sabot (APFSDS) projectiles. Intended as a stopgap, the T-62 became the mainstay of the Soviet Army into the 1970s.

Radio antenna Stowage boxes Hull capable of withstanding a tactical nuclear blast at 300m (330 yards)

u Type 62 Date 1962 Country China Weight 21 tonnes (23.2 tons) Engine 12150L-3 V12 diesel, 430hp Main armament 85mm Type 62-85TC riﬂed gun

As capable as it was, the Type 59 was simply too large and heavy for some areas of China. The Type 62 was essentially a scaled down version issued to units based in such areas. As a result, its ﬁrepower and protection were weaker, but the tank did have improved ground pressure and mobility.

Low turret proﬁle

Sprocket wheel at rear of tank Wheel arrangement with characteristic gap between the ﬁrst and second pairs

132 . THE COLD WAR

Tanks of the Communist Bloc (cont.) The combat record of Soviet tanks, particularly as used by client states in the Middle East, suggests that they were inferior to Western tanks in one-on-one encounters. However, the truth is that these states rarely used tanks in accordance with the doctrine for which they were designed. Indeed, Soviet tanks were generally quite sophisticated, especially later in the Cold War, featuring gas turbine engines, Kontakt Explosive Reactive Armour, and the Drozd Active Protection System.

Watertight hull

u Type 63 Smoothbore gun with guided missile capability

Date 1963 Country China Weight 18.4 tonnes (20.3 tons) Engine Model 12150-l diesel, 400hp Main armament 85mm Type 62-85TC riﬂed gun

r T-64B Date 1966 Country Soviet Union Weight 39 tonnes (43 tons) Engine 5DTF diesel, 700hp Main armament 125mm 2A46M2 L/48 smoothbore gun

Turret contains autoloader

An advanced but complex design, the T-64 introduced many new features, notably an autoloader for the gun, which could also ﬁre guided missiles. It was intended for independent tank battalions – the spearhead of the Soviet Army – and was never exported. The breakup of the Soviet Union left the T-64 factory in Ukraine, which has developed the tank further.

125mm smoothbore gun

Although similar in concept to the PT-76, the Type 63 is a largely indigenous design. It is powered by two waterjets that give it a speed of 6.5 knots (7.5mph). The Type 63 can swim over long distances, a feature that enables it to cross wide rivers and paddy ﬁelds, as well as play a role in amphibious operations.

Composite armour protection

Twelve wheels powered by a V-46 diesel engine

u T-72M1 Date 1973 Country Soviet Union Weight 41.5 tonnes (45.7 tons) Engine V-46.6 diesel, 780hp Main armament 125mm 2A46 L/48 smoothbore gun

Designed as a simpler and cheaper alternative to the T-64, the T-72 has received extensive upgrades over its long career, and the latest models are ﬁtted with distinctive Explosive Reactive Armour (ERA) panels and thermal hunter-killer sights. Versions exported by the Soviets generally have less sophisticated systems and thinner armour.

Smoke grenade dischargers

Explosive Reactive Armour on glacis plate

r T-80 Date 1976 Country Soviet Union Weight 46 tonnes (50.7 tons) Engine GTD-1250 gas turbine, 1,250hp Main armament 125mm 2A46M1 L/48 smoothbore gun

Developed from the T-64, the T-80 was powered by a gas turbine engine. It was seen on the streets of Moscow during the attempted coup of 1991, and saw combat in Chechnya in 1995. This T-80U upgrade has a more powerful turbine and a new turret that is protected by ERA panels.

TA N K S O F T H E C O M M U N I S T B L O C ( C O N T. ) . 1 3 3 12.7mm air-defence machine-gun

r Type 88C Date 1981 Country China

100mm main gun muzzle

125mm smoothbore gun

Weight 41 tonnes (45.2 tons) Engine VR36 V12 diesel, 790hp Main armament 125mm smoothbore gun During the Cold War, two generations of Chinese tanks shared the basic T-54 design. This began to change in the late 1980s. The culmination of a series of prototypes and export models, the Type 88C had a new roadwheel arrangement and a new turret ﬁtted with an autoloader.

l Type 69 Infra-red searchlight

Date 1983 Country China Weight 36.7 tonnes (40.4 tons) Engine 12150L-7BW V12 diesel, 580hp Main armament 100mm riﬂed gun

Rounded turret

A heavily upgraded Type 59, the Type 69 was developed by Chinese companies without Soviet support. This later version, the Type 69-II, had a laser rangeﬁnder mounted over the barrel and an infra-red searchlight next to the gun. It was not widely used by the Chinese, but was a signiﬁcant export success.

Road wheels follow pattern of Soviet tanks

100mm riﬂed gun

r T-55AD Date 1989 Country Soviet Union Weight 36 tonnes (39.6 tons) Engine V-55 V12 diesel, 580hp Main armament 100mm D-10T2S L/53.5 rifled gun Popularly known as Enigma, this Iraqi T-55 has extra armour fitted to its turret, side skirts, and glacis plate. It contains layers of steel, rubber, and aluminium to defeat High Explosive Anti Tank (HEAT) warheads. This is an example of the kind of upgrades applied by many countries to keep older tanks viable on the battlefield. A disadvantage is the extra weight, which can affect the tank’s mobility.

134 . THE COLD WAR

T-72 The T-72 was a Soviet tank designed for use if the Cold War had escalated into open conﬂict. Simple to manufacture and to maintain, it followed the T-64 (see p.132), a more expensive and complex tank. The T-72 entered service with the Red Army in the 1970s and it is still used by over 40 countries. Versions of the T-72, often with lower standards of protection, were built in the Soviet Union for export, while Poland and Czechoslovakia also manufactured T-72s.

THE T-72 INCLUDED FEATURES from earlier Soviet tank designs – a low profile, a frying pan-shaped turret, and a reliable diesel engine. At just over 41 tonnes (45 tons), it was relatively light compared to contemporary Western tanks. It was also considered less effective than its Western rivals in one-on-one encounters, as with many Soviet tanks of the Cold War. However, it was fit for purpose: Soviet commanders intended to use it in huge massed attacks to swamp western defences. The T-72 was fitted with an autoloader system for the main gun, with 22 rounds housed in a circular, horizontal carousel; 17 extra rounds were stored in the hull. This allowed a maximum rate of fire of up to three shots in 13 seconds. It also meant that a three-man crew could be used (commander, gunner, and driver), reducing the need for crew space and enabling a smaller, lighter design. This was so effective that official guidelines specified a maximum height of 175cm (5ft 9in) for crewmen, to ensure they could fit into the T-72’s cramped interior.

SPECIFICATIONS Name

T-72M1

Date

1973

Origin

Soviet Union

Production

Over 25,000

Engine

V46.6 V-12 diesel, 780hp

Weight

41.5 tonnes (45.7 tons)

Main armament

125mm 2A46M smoothbore

Secondary armament

12.7mm NSVT machine-gun

Crew

Armour thickness

Max 280mm (11in) Commander

Driver

Gunner

REAR VIEW

T-7 2 . 1 3 5

Smoothbore barrel, strong enough to ram through walls

Wading snorkel on rear of turret

125mm gun, larger than contemporary Western equivalents

Sloped armour on front of hull

Metal tracks with wide footprint

THREE-QUARTER VIEW

“Gill” armour protects tank from hollow charge rounds

Stealth and mobility The front view of the T-72 reveals one of its major tactical assets – its low proﬁle. At just over 2m (6ft) in height, it presents a difﬁcult target for an enemy. The autoloader allows a reduction in height as there is no need for a standing crew member in the turret.

136 . THE COLD WAR 8

EXTERIOR

Tanks often feature improvements and additions, and this T-72 from Polish service shows added “gill” armour along the sides. These rubber squares can be angled forward to detonate or disrupt hollow charge rounds before they meet the main body of the tank. The external machine-gun bracket was originally mounted wth an anti-aircraft 12.7mm NSVT, and the turret also housed a 7.62-mm PKT co-axial machine-gun. 1. Polish national emblem 2. Station keeping/convoy light 3. Main gun sight 4. Headlamp 5. Infrared light 6. Machine-gun bracket 7. Commander’s hatch (closed) 8. Gunner’s hatch (closed) 9. Deep wading snorkel (stowed) 10. Machine-gun ammunition boxes 11. Engine exhaust 12. Additional “gill” armour 13. Fuel drum brackets 14. Spare track links on hull 15. Rear reﬂector 1

T-7 2 . 1 3 7

INTERIOR Housing just three crew, the interior of the T-72 was cramped and made few concessions to human comfort. Its crew compartment offered nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) protection, and the gunner had access to gunsights and a laser rangeﬁnder for use in the day, as well as infrared sights for use at night.

16. Looking down into commander’s position 17. Commander’s sight 18. Looking down into gunner’s position 19. Gunner’s sight 20. Commander’s seat back and pistol case 21. Gun elevation handwheel 22. Main gun breech and autoloader 23. Looking down into driver’s position 24. Driver’s periscope 25. Gear lever 26. Driver’s instrument panel 27. Left-hand steering lever 26

Berlin brinkmanship Berlin was a constant battleground during the Cold War. When East German Border guards stopped an American diplomat in October 1961 and insisted on seeing his passport, American authorities in West Berlin reacted by escorting their diplomats into the eastern part of the city with troops in Jeeps. The alarmed American government sent General Lucius D. Clay to Berlin to ensure that no further encroachments were made by the Soviets into the Four Party Agreement made at the end of World War II. Clay was determined not to back down to any form of Soviet posturing, so on October 27 he sent M48 tanks to Checkpoint Charlie, the manned gateway between East and West Berlin. The tanks stood 75m (246ft) from the border, guns forward and

engines revving. In response, the Russian leader Nikita Khrushchev ordered Russian T-55 tanks to meet the Americans. The two sides faced each other for 16 hours while President Kennedy had a separate conversation with the Kremlin. Eventually, ﬁrst one T-55 was withdrawn and then an M48 backed away – and this continued until normality resumed. The Russians honoured the earlier Four Party agreement over free movement in Berlin, but General Clay was told that such brinkmanship was too dangerous a policy to pursue in the future. Russian and American tanks face each other from either side of Checkpoint Charlie – a crossing-point between East and West Berlin – in 1961.

140 . THE COLD WAR

The Ulan infantry ﬁghting vehicle, on manoeuvres

Key Manufacturers

General Dynamics General Dynamics is one of a new breed of highly adaptable military-industrial conglomerates. Following the end of the Cold War, its future looked bleak, but by concentrating on armoured vehicles, warships, and military information systems, it was able to rise to prominence again.

IN 1982, GENERAL DYNAMICS, until then a major force in submarine construction and military aviation, took a decision to move into the manufacture of fighting vehicles, and a new division, Land Systems, was created to acquire the Chrysler Corporation’s defence interests. Its main asset was the M60 Patton Main Battle Tank, over 15,000 of which were produced between 1961 and 1987. These equipped the US Army and US Marine Corps’ armoured divisions throughout much of the Cold War, and saw active service (by now in its third generation) with the USMC in the 1991 Gulf War. American fighting vehicles are often named after historic senior commanders, and the Patton’s successor, the M1 Abrams, was no exception. After a lengthy design process, it entered service in 1980 and soon demonstrated its superiority. Successive upgrades enabled it to remain active for many decades. Its original composite armour was progressively improved, most significantly by adding depleted uranium or “reactive” (explosive) plates to the most vulnerable areas (see pp.238–39), while the original rifled 105mm gun, the M68A1, deemed inadequate for the modern battlefield, was soon

Abrams production Production of Abrams MBTs began at Detroit and the Lima plant at Ohio. When the Detroit plant closed in 1996, Lima took over refurbishment duties. The Lima plant had previously built tanks such as the Sherman.

Flyer Advanced Light Strike Vehicle Developed for Special Forces, the Flyer carries up to nine men at up to 160km/h (100mph). It can be armed with a machine-gun, a cannon or a 40mm grenade launcher.

replaced by the smooth-bore 120mm M256A1, designed in Germany. This 44-calibre cannon could ﬁre a variety of projectiles, including the M829 APFSDS (Armour Piercing Fin Stabilized Discarding Sabot) “dart” – made of depleted uranium, and capable of penetrating 570mm (22in) of steel armour at 2,000m (2,200yds) – as well as highexplosive (shaped charge) and anti-personnel cartridges containing over a thousand 9.5mm (3⁄8 in) tungsten balls. General Dynamics had divested itself of all of its military aviation interests by the end of the 20th century, but Land Systems soon expanded further, with acquisitions from Europe as well as at home. First came Santa Bárbara Sistemas, acquired from the Spanish Government, which produced not only vehicles but also small arms, munitions, and missiles. Next, in 2003, Land Systems acquired General Motors’ defence interests, and then Steyr Daimler Puch Spezialfahrzeug (SDPS) from an Austrian investment house. The latter brought with it the Swiss MOWAG company, which had been producing specialised military and civilian vehicles with a degree of success since 1950. These new European interests soon became an important part of the parent company’s armoured vehicle development effort, with Santa Bárbara and Steyr working together (as ASCOD – Austrian-Spanish Co-operation Development) to produce the Pizarro Infantry Fighting Vehicle (known as the Ulan in Austrian service) and the Scout SV (Specialist Vehicle). The Pizzaro/Ulan was a limited success, adopted by Austria and Spain only, but the Scout

SV was a different story. In preference to BAE Systems’ CV90, it was adopted by the British Army as the Ajax family, to replace its aging Combat Vehicle Reconniassance (Tracked) family of vehicles. SDPS independently developed the (wheeled) Pandur Armoured Fighting Vehicle from a design produced by another Spanish concern, Pegaso, while MOWAG produced the Eagle, a light tactical vehicle, the DURO, an off-road tactical transport, and, most successfully, the Piranha family of wheeled multi-role APC/IFVs. The Piranha entered service in 1972, and was soon available in four distinct versions, from four- to ten-wheeled, some of them equipped with twin propellers and rudders to give them a limited “smooth-water” amphibious capability. The Piranha was to become the basis for the eight-wheeled LAV-25 and Bison, used by US and Canadian units, and the latter’s six-wheeled AVGPs (Armoured Vehicle General Purpose), known in their various forms as Cougar, Grizzly, and Husky, as well as the eight-wheeled LAV III known as the Kodiak. Later variants of the Piranha formed the basis of the US Army’s Stryker family of armoured ﬁghting vehicles, almost 4,500 of which had entered service when production ceased in 2014. There were also

GENERAL DYNAMICS . 141

“ . . . if you want to get somebody’s attention, just put an M1A1 tank on the ground.” GENERAL LON E. MAGGART, COMMANDING GENERAL, THE ARMOR CENTER, FORT KNOX

Ocelot Unlike mine-protected vehicles based on existing chassis, Ocelot is modular. Its design integrates V-hull, blast-protection technology with a demountable protected crew pod.

numerous sub-types of all these vehicles. The Kodiak, for example, was equipped with a turretmounted 25mm chain gun, while Swiss versions of the Piranha could mount TOW anti-tank missiles and the M1128 Mobile Gun System version of the Stryker could even support a 105mm M68 cannon. Another US-based specialist, Force Protection Inc., was added to the portfolio in 2011. Its most important product line was the Cougar MRAP (Mine-Resistant, Ambush Protected), available in Abrams MBT The world’s heaviest Main Battle Tank, the Abrams ﬁrst saw combat in the 1991 Gulf War and proved itself outstanding. Over 10,000 were built, in three versions, with a fourth to follow.

both a 4x4 and a 6x6 wheel configuration. It was produced to a specification issued by the US Marine Corps, which was dissatisfied with the fragility of the Humvee in hostile territory, but went on to be adopted by the armed services of over a dozen nations under a variety of names and forms. Force Protection later produced a lighter mine-resistant vehicle named Ocelot, which was adopted by the British Army as the Foxhound, to replace its unsatisfactory and unpopular Snatch Land Rovers.

Ajax armoured ﬁghting vehicle The British Army’s new family of infantry ﬁghting vehicles was designed in Austria and Spain. This version’s turret is German, while its 40mm cannon was developed in France.

142 . THE COLD WAR

Centurion The Centurion is one of the classic post-war tanks. It started life as a heavy cruiser tank designed to take the highly effective 17-pounder gun used in World War II. By 1947 the gun’s makers, the Royal Ordnance Factory, had designed a new weapon, the 20-pounder. This was capable of much better performance, and was adopted for a new Centurion model, the Mark 3, which also featured an improved version of the Rolls-Royce Meteor engine.

PRODUCTION BEGAN in 1945 at the Royal Ordnance Factory near Leeds, and the Vickers-Armstrong plant at Newcastle-uponTyne in the north of England; around 2,800 Mark 3 tanks were completed by 1956. In 1959, the 20-pounder guns were again replaced with the Royal Ordnance Factories’ new L7 105mm gun. This main gun fired a range of ammunition types, including Armour Piercing Discarding Sabot (APDS), Armour Piercing Fin Stabilized Discarding Sabot (APFSDS), and High Explosive Squash REAR VIEW Head (HESH) rounds. The Centurion’s combat history began in the Korean War in 1950, where one regiment of Centurions was deployed with great success. The tank also saw action in Vietnam, the India–Pakistan conflict of 1965, and a number of Middle East conflicts. Many features remained consistent throughout the tank’s variants, including the welded, boat-shaped hull, Horstmann suspension, and Meteor engine. The latter was regarded as underpowered, limiting the tank’s speed and agility, and it had a short operational range. In British service, the Centurion ran until the Mark 13 – the version shown here – but other countries continued to improve their models until 2003. SPECIFICATIONS Name

Centurion Mark 13 FV4017

Date

1945–62

Origin

Production

More than 13,750

Engine

Rolls Royce Meteor Mark 4B petrol, 650hp

Weight

52.6 tonnes (58 tons)

Main armament

105mm L7A2

Secondary armament

.30 Browning M1919, .50 Browning M2

Crew

Armour thickness

152mm (6in) max

Loader Commander

Gunner

Driver

143

105mm L7 gun Aerial mount

Infra-red headlamp

THREE-QUARTER VIEW Metal track – later “Hush Puppy” rubber blocked track was used

Horstmann suspension

Royal Tank Regiment badge Tanks could serve with a number of Regiments during their service lives. The Royal Tank Regiment were the successors to the Tank Corps of World War I.

Night fighting The Mark 13 can be distinguished by the large spotlight fitted to the turret. This could provide conventional white light or an infra-red beam for night fighting. It was adopted as a result of British experience in Korea, and that of the Americans and Australians in Vietnam. Infra-red filters were also fitted for night driving and these may be seen here as the outermost headlamps each side, on the front of the tank.

144 . THE COLD WAR

EXTERIOR

The Centurion was memorably described by a former crewmember as a tank “with a soul”: for many tankmen, it was remembered with affection and considered the last generation of tank that the crew could repair themselves with standard tools. The ability of broken-down or knocked-out tanks to be recovered and repaired ready for a following day’s battle was one of the reasons the Israeli Army thought very highly of the vehicle. The commander’s cupola can counterrotate against the position of the turret to allow him to keep eyes on a target while the turret moves.

1. Fire extinguisher release 2. Headlamp cluster – outer light is infra-red to assist with night driving 3. Front drive sprocket 4. Covers for driver’s periscopes 5. Gunner’s sight aperture 6. Infra-red/white light searchlight 7. Loader’s periscope 8. Commander’s cupola with hatch closed 9. Smoke grenade dischargers 10. Infantry telephone box 11. Fishtail exhaust 4

CENTURION . 145

INTERIOR The Centurion differs from World War II tanks in that there is no co-driver – ammunition is stored next to the driver in the place a co-driver would previously have sat. The gunner and commander’s gun sights are mechanically linked.

12. Looking down into commander’s position 13. Commander’s cupola interior 14. Larkspur radio set 15. Fuses (left) and control box (right) for searchlight 16. Commander’s foot rest 17. Gunner’s position 18. Main gun breech 19. Gunner’s sight 20. Traverse indicator 21. Emergency main gun ﬁring panel 22. Elevation handwheel 23. .50-cal ranging machine-gun 24. Driver’s compartment 25. Driver’s instrument panel 26. Driver’s switchboard

146 . THE COLD WAR

Tanks of the NATO Alliance Without an equivalent to Soviet domination, NATO nations were free to produce a wide range of tanks. All were intended to defend Western Europe against a Soviet threat, but differing national doctrines led to a variety of different designs. The German Leopards, for example, emphasized mobility and had very light armour, whereas the British Chieftain was far more heavily armoured but much less mobile. Many of these tanks were exported to other NATO members and Western allies across the world.

20-pounder main gun

u Centurion Mark 3

Commander’s cupola

Date 1948 Country UK

Gun mantlet

Weight 50.8 tonnes (56 tons) Engine Rolls-Royce Meteor Mark IVA petrol, 650hp Main armament Ordnance QF 20-pounder gun The Mark 3 introduced the powerful 20-pounder gun and an effective stabilization system. This enabled the tank to ﬁre while being on the move. It was used in combat in Korea, India, Pakistan, and Vietnam. The Centurions proved to be highly successful, and around 4,423 tanks were built. Most were Mark 3s, which were later upgraded.

Headlamp

u M41A1 Walker Bulldog Date 1951 Country USA Weight 23.2 tonnes (25.5 tons) Engine Continental AOS-895-3 petrol, 500hp Main armament 76mm M32 L/64 gun

The replacement for the M24 Chaffee, the M41 was designed to have signiﬁcantly heavier ﬁrepower, but still be light enough to be transported by air. It was widely exported around the world and saw combat with the Americans and the South Vietnamese. A number of nations still use it.

Drive sprocket

d M47 Patton Date 1952 Country USA Weight 43.6 tonnes (48 tons) Engine Continental AV1790-5A petrol, 810hp Main armament 90mm M36 L/50 riﬂed gun

The M47 was an interim vehicle using the hull of the M46 and a new turret. Although the Americans had replaced it with the M48 by the end of the 1950s, more than 9,000 M47s were built. It was widely exported to American allies under the Military Assistance Program. Many of these countries operated it for decades and several used it in combat.

Road wheels

147

r M48 Patton Date 1952 Country USA Weight 44.7 tonnes (49.3 tons) Engine Continental AV-1790-5B petrol, 810hp Main armament 90mm M41 L/50 riﬂed gun

d AMX-13 Date 1953 Country France Weight 15 tonnes (16.5 tons) Engine Sofam Model 8Gxb petrol, 250hp Main armament 75mm SA 50 riﬂed gun

The M48 was being developed even before M47 production began. It had an improved hull, turret, and suspension. Almost 12,000 tanks were built and used by 26 nations, seeing service in several wars. An AVDS-1790 diesel engine and 105mm M68 gun were added to later versions.

This lightly armoured tank incorporated several innovative features to keep its weight down. The engine was located at the front, the gun had an autoloader, and the turret had an oscillating design, where the entire upper section moved with the gun. A great success, the AMX-13 received many upgrades, including 90mm and 105mm guns.

.50 Browning M2 machine-gun

r M103A2 Date 1953 Country USA Weight 58 tonnes (64 tons) Engine Continental AVDS-1790-2 diesel, 750hp Main armament 120mm M58 L/63.2 riﬂed gun The M103 was developed from the late 1940s to support medium tanks and counter Soviet IS-3 and T-10 heavy tanks. The size and weight of the separate-loading 120mm ammunition required two loaders. It was popular with the US Marine Corps, where 220 tanks served from 1959 to 1972.

l M60A1 RISE Date 1960 Country USA

Fume extractor

Weight 52.6 tonnes (58 tons) Engine Continental AVDS-1790-2A diesel, 750hp Main armament 105mm M68 L/52 riﬂed gun

 Chieftain Mark 11 Date 1966 Country UK Weight 55 tonnes (60.6 tons) Engine Leyland L60 multifuel, 750hp Main armament 120mm L11A5 L/55 riﬂed gun

Drive sprocket

To save development time and money, the M60 was based on the M48. The 105mm gun and its ﬁre-control system gave the tank greater ﬁrepower. It also featured a diesel engine and thicker armour. The improved M60A1 was introduced in 1963. It served more than 20 countries for decades, receiving numerous upgrades.

The Chieftain had heavy armour and powerful ﬁrepower, with mobility as a lower priority, for its anticipated role in defending against a Soviet attack. It replaced both Conqueror and Centurion in 1966. This was the ﬁrst tank where the driver drove semi-reclined, reducing its overall height.

148 . THE COLD WAR

Tanks of the NATO Alliance (cont.) NATO nations standardized many aspects of their militaries so that they could ﬁght effectively together, including ammunition, fuel, and command procedures. However, despite several failed multinational projects, the alliance never produced a NATO standard tank. From the late 1950s, however, the British-designed L7 105mm gun was widely – although not exclusively – adopted for use in tanks across the nations of the alliance.

120mm smoothbore gun

105mm main gun

r AMX-30B2 Date 1963 Country France Weight 37 tonnes (40.8 tons) Engine Hispano-Suiza HS110 multifuel, 720hp Main armament 105mm Modele F1 L/56 riﬂed gun The lightweight AMX-30 was the result of French tank design in the 1950s, emphasizing mobility and ﬁrepower. The tank’s low height and speed of up to 64kph (40mph) provided extra protection. After serving the French Army throughout the Cold War, the upgraded AMX-30B2 saw combat in the Gulf War of 1991.

Road wheels Fume extractor

r Leopard 1 Date 1965 Country West Germany Weight 42.4 tonnes (46.7 tons) Engine MTU MB838 multifuel, 830hp Main armament 105mm L7A3 L/52 gun

Unlike Germany’s wartime tanks, the Leopard was fast with thin armour. Around 5,000 of these were produced and they served over a dozen nations. In more than 30 years of service, it received upgrades in armour protection, sights, and ﬁre control system. Two turret variants were produced – this one was cast, the other, with an angular shape, was welded.

Stowage basket

Skirt covers treads

d M60A2 Date 1972 Country USA Weight 52.6 tonnes (58 tons) Engine Continental AVOS-1790-2A diesel, 750hp Main armament 152mm M162 gun/missile launcher

Camouﬂage netting

The M60A2 had a radically redesigned turret armed with a 152mm gun that could also fire the MGM-51 Shillelagh anti-tank missile. Unsuccessful, it was withdrawn in 1980. Instead, the M60A3 was developed, which kept the 105mm gun and added a laser rangefinder, sophisticated fire-control system, and a thermal sight often rated better than that on early M1 Abrams.

Fuel storage 152mm main gun muzzle

u Centurion Mark 13 Date 1966 Country UK Weight 52.6 tonnes (58 tons) Engine Rolls-Royce Meteor Mark IVB petrol, 650hp Main armament 105mm L7 L/52 riﬂed gun

The 105mm L7 gun was developed after the British analysed the Soviet T-54 tank. It was fitted to the Centurion in 1959. Subsequent Centurions were fitted with ranging machine-guns for accurate gunnery, an infrared searchlight for night fighting, and thicker armour. Upgraded Israeli versions of the Centurion saw heavy combat and earned a stellar reputation.

TA N K S O F T H E N AT O A L L I A N C E ( C O N T. ) . 1 4 9

Vertical turret armour

 Leopard 2A4 Date 1979 Country West Germany Weight 55.2 tonnes (60.8 tons) Engine MTU MB 873 Ka-501 diesel, 1,500hp Main armament 120mm Rheinmetall 120 L/44 gun

The Leopard 2 introduced the 120mm smoothbore gun, which soon became the Western standard. Almost 3,000 were produced, with the 2A4 version being the most common. The turret incorporated composite armour made from different materials, which meant it did not have to be sloped to be effective.

Co-axial machine-gun

l M1 Abrams Date 1980 Country USA

Stowage on turret

Weight 54.5 tonnes (60 tons) Engine Textron Lycoming AGT1500 gas turbine, 1,500hp

Chobham armour

Main armament 105mm M68 L/52 riﬂed gun The M1 was adopted to replace the aging M60. It featured advanced Chobham armour, a gas-turbine engine, and a computerized ﬁre-control system. The gas turbine gave it unmatched speed, but at the cost of very high fuel consumption. Later models improved the armour, and the M1A1 replaced its gun with the 120mm smoothbore.

Rubber tracks

d Challenger 1 Date 1984 Country UK Weight 62 tonnes (68.3 tons) Engine Perkins CV12 V-12 diesel, 1,200hp Main armament 120mm L11A5 L/55 riﬂed gun

The Challenger was not intended for the British Army. It was designed for Iran but was cancelled after the revolution in 1979. Internally, it was very similar to a late model of Chieftain, but had a much more reliable engine and hydrogas suspension. It was protected by an advanced, top-secret Chobham composite armour. Challenger 1 ﬁrst saw combat in the Gulf War.

7.62mm machine-gun

Toolbox on hull

Composite armour

150 . THE COLD WAR

Leopard 1 The German Leopard, in all its many forms, is undoubtedly one of the most successful post-war tank designs. When the West German Army was re-formed in 1955, it was initially equipped with American tanks, but two years later a FrancoGerman tank development programme began. However, this partnership ended in 1962, and France went its own way to build the rival AMX-30 design.

GERMANY CONTINUED the wartime practice of ordering prototypes from different companies (or, in this case, groups of companies) and then selecting the best model. In 1963, Krauss-Maffei of Munich was awarded the contract for the new Standard Panzer, the tank that became known as Leopard 1. In contrast to late-World War II German tank design, the Leopard REAR VIEW emphasized mobility over protection. However, in terms of ﬁrepower, the Germans selected the best weapon available at that time – the British 105mm L7 gun, as used in the Centurion (see pp.144–47). Although it began life as a relatively simple tank, new technologies, increased armour protection, and individual countries’ requirements led to the Leopard developing many subvariants. This version is the Leopard 1A1A2, which has a gun stabilization system, additional layers of armour around the turret, and improved gun sights and observation equipment.

SPECIFICATIONS Name

Leopard 1A1A2

Date

1965

Origin

West Germany

Production

6,486

Engine

MTU MB838 10-cylinder multifuel, 830hp

Weight

42.4 tonnes (46.7 tons)

Main armament

105mm L7A3

Secondary armament

2 x 7.62mm MG3 machine-guns

Crew

Armour thickness

10–70mm (0.4–2.8in) Loader

Engine Driver

Commander

Gunner

151

105mm L7 main gun

Torsion bar suspension

THREE-QUARTER VIEW Grousers, to be ﬁtted to tracks in icy conditions

Double pin tracks

Enduring appeal The Leopard was a great export success, with variants being operated by 15 countries. Many were then taken out of service, refurbished, and sold in modiﬁed forms, including engineer-vehicle and recovery models.

152 . THE COLD WAR

EXTERIOR

With its emphasis on lightness and mobility, the Leopard 1 had minimal armour protection. To compensate for this, the front-most part of the tank, known as the glacis plate, is sloped at 60 degrees to the vertical. This helps deﬂect enemy projectiles, and effectively thickens the hull by forcing projectiles to take a diagonal route through its surface.

1. National recognition symbol 2. Headlight 3. Ice grousers 4. Driver’s periscopes 5. Commander’s TRP 2A panoramic sight head 6. Commander’s cupola (closed) 7. Rangeﬁnder aperture 8. Smoke dischargers 9. Rear stowage bin 10. Holder for engine deck lifting tool (tool missing) 11. Gun cleaning rods 12. Drive sprocket 13. Spare track link 14. Gun cradle above Leitkreuz blackout light 8 18

LEOPARD 1 . 153 16

INTERIOR The interior is divided into two compartments, with a ﬁrewall in between. The engine is situated in the rear compartment, while the crew are in the front: the commander in the turret with the gunner in front of him and the loader to his left, and the driver positioned forwards and to the right. 15. Looking down into commander’s cupola 16. Gunner’s position 17. Commander’s TRP 2A panoramic sight eyepiece 18. Gun stabilization system drift compensation box 19. Loader’s safety switch 20. Commander’s hydraulic hatch controls 21. 105mm gun breech 22. Gunner’s azimuth indicator dial 23. Driver’s position 24. Driver’s controls 25. Driver’s instrument panel 26. Gear lever 27. Fire extinguisher system 28. Intercom control panel

154 . THE COLD WAR

Tanks of the Non-aligned World

Variety of Sherman hulls converted

l Sherman M-50

Many nations attempted to steer between the two Cold War powers. Some, such as Yugoslavia in the 1950s, purchased equipment from both sides; others, such as the Swiss, continued designing and building their own weapons. Many countries purchased western tanks, using them for decades and upgrading them with their own systems.

Date 1956 Country Israel Weight 34 tonnes (37.5 tons) Engine Cummins V8 diesel, 460hp Main armament 75mm CN75-50 riﬂed gun Developed to keep around 300 older Israeli M4 Shermans viable, the M-50 was ﬁtted with a more powerful engine, HVSS suspension, and the French 75mm gun also used on the AMX-13. It saw service in the Six Day War of 1967.

Thin turret armour

External machine-gun

u Sho't Date 1958 Country Israel Weight 51.8 tonnes (57.1 tons) Engine Continental AVDS-1790-2A diesel, 750hp Main armament 105mm L7 L/52 riﬂed gun

r Strv 74 Date 1958 Country Sweden Weight 22.5 tonnes (24.8 tons) Engine 2 x Scania-Vabis 603/1 diesels, 170hp each Main armament 75mm Strv 74 riﬂed gun

At ﬁrst, the Centurion was unpopular in Israel, with poor reliability. Upgrades including a diesel engine and improved crew training soon changed this perception. Its combat record in 1967 and 1973 proved stellar, especially the defence of the Golan Heights in 1973. The Strv 74 was an upgrade of the 1940s vintage m/42; the most obvious difference was the new, more powerful gun in a large but thinly armoured turret. The 225 conversions supplemented the Centurion in Swedish tank units until the late 1960s.

105mm riﬂed gun

Commander's cupola

Barrel clamp

Muzzle brake

l Type 61 Date 1961 Country Japan Weight 35 tonnes (38.5 tons) Engine Mitsubishi 12HM21WT diesel, 570hp Armament Main 90mm L/52 riﬂed gun

The ﬁrst post-World War II Japanese tank, the Type 61 was developed instead of buying American vehicles, as they were assessed as being too large and heavy for the Japanese crewmen and the country’s geography. A total of 560 were built. None were exported and it never saw combat.

Towing hitch

Stowage bins M4A1 Sherman hull

Aerial mount

 Panzer 61 Date 1961 Country Switzerland Weight 38.6 tonnes (42.6 tons) Engine MTU MB837 Ba-500 diesel, 630hp Main armament 105mm L7 L/52 riﬂed gun

The Panzer 61 was developed for Swiss terrain – steep mountains and narrow railway tunnels. It replaced the Centurion, with 150 built. The original co-axial 20mm cannon was later replaced with a more conventional 7.5mm machine-gun. It served until the 1990s.

u Sherman M-51 Date 1965 Country Israel Weight 39 tonnes (43 tons) Engine Cummins V8 diesel, 460hp Main armament 105mm Modele F1 L/44 riﬂed gun

r Vijayanta

The M-51 upgrade was applied to 76mm-armed M4A1 Shermans. As well as the modiﬁed French gun, the transmission, ammunition racks, and rear of the turret were all replaced. M-51s fought in 1967, and were pressed back into service in the Yom Kippur War of 1973.

Stowage bins

Date 1965 Country India Weight 39 tonnes (43 tons) Engine Leyland L60 diesel, 535hp Main armament 105mm L7A2 L/52 riﬂed gun The Vijayanta was based on the British Vickers Mark 1, which was privately developed for export. Use of components common to the Centurion, already used in India, made maintenance and training simpler. Around 2,200 were built.

d Strv 103 (S-Tank) Vision port

Date 1967 Country Sweden Weight 39.6 tonnes (43.7 tons) Engine Rolls-Royce K60 multifuel, 240hp and Caterpillar 553 gas turbine, 490hp Main armament 105mm Bofors L/62 riﬂed gun

The Strv 103 was intended to ﬁght defensively, ambushing the enemy then escaping; its low proﬁle and second, rear-facing driver made it very effective in this role. The autoloading gun was aimed by steering and adjusting the height of the hydropneumatic suspension.

Wide tracks for winter conditions

156 . THE COLD WAR

Tanks of the Non-aligned World (cont.)

Geometric camouﬂage

Some nations used both domestic and upgraded foreign vehicles – South Korea and Israel both moved from upgrades to indigenous vehicles as their economies developed. As well as being a symbol of industrial and military power, a domestically-designed tank could be optimized for the conditions a country expected to face on the battleﬁeld. The unique designs of the Israeli Merkava and Swedish Strv 103 illustrate this most clearly.

105mm main gun

Periscope

Widened tracks

l Panzer 68 Date 1971 Country Switzerland Weight 40.8 tonnes (45 tons) Engine MTU V8 diesel, 660hp Main armament 105mm L7 L/52 riﬂed gun

Road wheels

Suspension can raise or lower tank

u Type 74 Date 1975 Country Japan Weight 38 tonnes (41.9 tons) Engine Mitsubishi 10ZF diesel, 720hp Main armament 105mm L7 L/52 riﬂed gun

Based on the Panzer 61, the Panzer 68 featured wider tracks with rubber pads to improve mobility, especially over snow; and a gun stabilization system that enabled more accurate ﬁring on the move. The ﬁnal version, Panzer 68/88, served until the early 2000s.

Developed in response to the Soviet T-62, the Type 74 suffered from a long development period and slow entry into service; 893 were built, the last in 1989. Its hydropneumatic suspension could raise, lower, or incline the vehicle to suit terrain. Upgrades included a laser rangeﬁnder and improved night vision systems.

Gun sight aperture 7.62mm machine-gun

105mm main gun

r Merkava 1 Date 1979 Country Israel Weight 59.9 tonnes (66.1 tons) Engine Continental AVDS-1790-6A diesel, 900hp Main armament 105mm M68 L/52 rifled gun The Merkava incorporated lessons from Israeli combat experience, meaning crew protection was highly emphasized. The engine was placed at the front and a door in the rear hull allowed protected ammunition resupply and casualty evacuation under fire. The Mark 1 was first used in Lebanon in 1982. The Mark 2 and 3 vehicles were significant redesigns; in addition all three received further upgrades.

Non-slip coating on composite armour Skirt

TA N K S O F T H E N O N -A L I G N E D W O R L D ( C O N T. ) . 1 5 7

Muzzle cover

l Khalid Date 1981 Country UK Weight 58 tonnes (64 tons) Engine Perkins CV12 V-12 diesel, 1,200hp Main armament 120mm L11A5 L/55 riﬂed gun

l Strv 104 Date 1985 Country Sweden Weight 54 tonnes (59.5 tons) Engine Continental AVDS-1790-2DC diesel, 750hp Main armament 105mm L7 L/52 riﬂed gun

Originally developed for Iran as the Shir 1, the Khalid was an evolution of the Chieftain. The larger engine required the distinctive sloped rear hull. It also incorporated an improved ﬁre control system, better suspension, and extra fuel capacity. The Iranian Revolution resulted in the order being cancelled in 1979, but Jordan stepped in and ordered 274.

Around 600 Centurions were bought by the Swedish Army during the 1950s and upgraded over the next 30 years: the 80 Strv 104s were the most advanced. The tank had a more powerful engine, ERA, modernized suspension, and improved sights and night vision. Drawdowns after the end of the Cold War led to its retirement in 2003.

Three external machine-guns

Co-axial machine-gun

Aerial

 K1 Date 1987 Country South Korea Weight 51.1 tonnes (56.3 tons) Engine MTU MB 871 Ka-501 diesel, 1,200hp Main armament 105mm M68 L/52 riﬂed gun

The K1 design came from the XM1 Abrams prototype, modiﬁed for Korean speciﬁcations, including hydropneumatic suspension. Over 1,000 K1s were built, followed by almost 500 K1A1s, with several improvements including a 120mm smoothbore gun.

 Magach 7C Date 1985 Country Israel Weight 49.9 tonnes (55 tons) Engine Continental AVDS-1790-5A diesel, 908hp Main armament 105mm M68 L/52 riﬂed gun

The first Magachs in the 1960s were modified M48s, while later vehicles, such as this one, were based on the M60. The add-on armour protected against tank rounds – unlike earlier ERA which only protected against missiles. The fire control system and tracks were also upgraded.

158 . THE COLD WAR

Tank Destroyers Tracked tank destroyers as used in World War II became less common as the Cold War progressed. By the 1970s, the development of lightweight anti-tank missiles meant that a heavy, gun-armed vehicle was no longer needed to destroy a tank. Many countries adapted their standard Armoured Personnel Carriers (APCs) for the job. Some countries retained the gun-armed vehicles for speciﬁc conditions such as close support to infantry or airborne forces, where the ability to ﬁre high-explosive shells remained important.

Rubber tyres on road wheels

u M56 Scorpion Date 1953 Country USA Weight 7.2 tonnes (8 tons) Engine Continental AOI-402-5 petrol, 200hp Armament Main 90mm M54 L/53 riﬂed gun

Smoke grenade dischargers

r M50 Ontos Date 1955 Country USA Weight 8.6 tonnes (9.5 tons) Engine General Motors Model 302 petrol, 145hp Main armament 6 x 106mm M40A1 recoilless riﬂes Originally intended for US airborne forces, the Ontos was instead adopted by the Marine Corps. In Vietnam, it was used to support infantry. Although its ammunition capacity was limited and the crew had to dismount to reload, its mobility made it popular and its heavy ﬁrepower proved invaluable in the urban combat in Hue in 1968.

u Charioteer Date 1954 Country UK Weight 31.5 tonnes (34.7 tons) Engine Rolls-Royce Meteor Mark IB petrol, 600hp Main armament QF 20-pounder gun An attempt to quickly ﬁeld more vehicles armed with the highly capable 20-pounder gun, the Charioteer was based on the wartime Cromwell hull. The large gun required a large turret, which was very lightly armoured to keep the weight down. A total of 442 Charioteers were built, with almost half being exported.

r Saladin Date 1958 Country UK Weight 11.3 tonnes (12.4 tons) Engine Rolls-Royce B80 Mark 6A petrol, 160hp Main armament 76mm L5A1 riﬂed gun Designed to replace the wartime Daimler and AEC armoured cars, the Saladin had heavier ﬁrepower and six-wheel drive, giving it excellent cross-country mobility. It was developed alongside the Saracen (see pp.180–81), with which it shared many components. Highly successful, almost 1,200 Saladins were built. It was exported to more than 20 countries, and saw combat with several, including Oman and Kuwait.

76mm main gun

Unarmoured except for a gun-shield, the lightweight Scorpion was designed to be airdropped. Unusually, the road wheels had rubber tyres. It saw limited use in Vietnam, with 325 built. Its light weight meant that the gun's recoil was strong enough to lift the front wheels off the ground

Armed with six recoilless riﬂes

TA N K D EST ROY E R S . 1 59

r ASU-85 Date 1960 Country Soviet Union Weight 15.5 tonnes (17.1 tons) Engine Model V-6 diesel, 240hp Main armament 85mm 2A15 riﬂed gun

A replacement for the open-topped ASU-57, the ASU-85 was a fully enclosed assault gun for Soviet Airborne Forces (VDV). Lightly armoured, it could be carried by the heaviest Soviet helicopters or dropped by a parachute. Its main role was to provide ﬁre support to the paratroopers, rather than attacking tanks.

Stowage bin Headlamp

l Panhard AML Date 1961 Country France Weight 5.6 tonnes (6.2 tons) Engine Panhard 4 HD petrol, 90hp Main armament 60mm Brandt LR gun-mortar

French experience in colonial conflicts showed the need for a lightweight armoured car with heavy firepower. The AML fulfilled this, being armed with either a 90mm gun or a 60mm mortar. Highly successful, it was sold to around 50 countries. More than 4,800 vehicles were built.

Armoured windscreen cover

r Hornet Date 1962 Country UK Weight 5.8 tonnes (6.4 tons) Engine Rolls-Royce B60 Mark 5A petrol, 120hp Main armament Malkara anti-tank missile

Based on the Humber 1-Ton APC, the Hornet was designed to be air dropped and was the ﬁrst British missile-armed tank destroyer. It was armed with two Malkara anti-tank missiles, which were wire guided and controlled manually by the gunner using a joystick.

Glacis plate armour

Rear light

u Kanonenjagdpanzer Date 1966 Country West Germany

Torsion bar suspension

Weight 27.5 tonnes (30.4 tons) Engine Mercedes Benz MB837 diesel, 500hp Main armament 90mm Rheinmetall BK90 L/40 riﬂed gun

Pneumatic tyres

Armed with reused guns from the outdated M47, this vehicle was used to provide anti-tank support to infantry formations. Its low height and speed made it well suited for the mobile defensive tactics these units would use. As the gun became obsolete, several were re-armed with the TOW missile.

Drive sprocket at rear

160 . THE COLD WAR

Tank Destroyers (cont.) Large guns continued to be widely used on wheeled vehicles. These vehicles still offered greater speed and lighter weight than a tracked vehicle, giving them superior mobility over long distances or poor infrastructure. Their guns were increasingly obsolete against the latest main battle tanks, but they still offered sufficient firepower to destroy older vehicles or fortifications. Many were used for reconnaissance or in areas such as Africa, where this was all they were likely to face.

r EE-9 Cascavel Date 1974 Country Brazil Weight 13.2 tonnes (14.6 tons) Engine Mercedes-Benz OM 352 diesel, 190hp Main armament 90mm EC-90 riﬂed gun The EE-9 and the EE-11 Urutu APC were developed together. Both used the unique Boomerang suspension system on the rear wheels, ensuring that both wheels remained on the ground over a larger range of motion. The Cascavel has seen combat with Libyan, Iraqi, and Zimbabwean forces.

90mm main gun

r Ikv-91 Date 1975 Country Sweden Weight 16.3 tonnes (17.9 tons) Engine Volvo-Penta TD 120A diesel, 330hp Main armament 90mm KV90S73 L/54 riﬂed gun

The Ikv-91 was used by Swedish infantry units for ﬁre-support and anti-tank warfare. It was lightly armoured and its light weight made it highly mobile and amphibious, enabling it to cross difﬁcult terrain and outmanoeuvre enemy tanks. Sweden operated 212 Ikv-91s until 2002.

Torsion bar suspension

r AMX-10RC Date 1981 Country France Weight 15.9 tonnes (17.5 tons) Engine Renault HS 115 diesel, 260hp Main armament 105mm F2 L/48 riﬂed gun

Intended for reconnaissance and ﬁre support, the AMX-10RC has seen combat in Chad and Afghanistan. Extensive upgrades have been applied during its service, especially to the sights and ﬁre-control systems. Unusually for a wheeled vehicle, it uses skid steering rather than a conventional mechanism.

Barrel sleeve

Wingmirror

u Cougar Date 1979 Country Canada Weight 10.7 tonnes (11.8 tons) Engine Detroit Diesel 6V53T diesel, 275hp Main armament 76mm L23A1 riﬂed gun

The Cougar was the ﬁre support variant of the Canadian Armoured Vehicle General Purpose (AVGP) family, which also included an APC named Grizzly and an Armoured Recovery Vehicle (ARV) named Husky. Their design was based on the MOWAG Piranha I and they saw service in peacekeeping operations in the Balkans and Somalia.

Welded hull armour

TA N K D E S T R OY E R S ( C O N T. ) . 1 6 1

Vision ports

r Wiesel Date 1989 Country West Germany Weight 2.6 tonnes (2.9 tons) Engine Audi 5 cylinder turbo-diesel, 87hp Main armament 20mm Rheinmetall Rh 202 DM6 cannon The Wiesel was developed to provide lightweight ﬁre support for West German paratroopers. Of 343 purchased, 133 had the 20mm cannon, and 210 were armed with the TOW anti-tank missile. It could be airlifted by helicopters or also be airdropped. The larger and heavier Wiesel 2 was later adopted by Germany as an air defence vehicle, ambulance, and command post.

l Rooikat Date 1990 Country South Africa Weight 28 tonnes (30.9 tons) Engine V10 diesel, 563hp Main armament 76mm GT4 L/62 riﬂed gun

r B1 Centauro Date 1991 Country Italy Weight 25 tonnes (27.6 tons) Engine Iveco VTCA V-6 diesel, 520hp Main armament 105mm OTO-Melara L/52 riﬂed gun

Rooikat incorporated lessons from the South African Border War. It emphasized mine protection and high speed, resulting in a wheeled design. The Rooikat had sufﬁcient ﬁrepower to destroy buildings and older armoured vehicles. Its armour was resistant to the very common 23mm anti-aircraft gun.

Designed as a highly mobile tank destroyer, the Centauro has been mostly used in peacekeeping missions, for which its combination of armour, ﬁrepower, and wheels were well suited. It was used in the Balkans and Somalia, and saw combat in Iraq. It has been exported to Spain, Jordan, and Oman.

Smoke grenade dischargers

Sloping hull armour

Engine ventilation

162 . THE COLD WAR

Cougar The Canadian-built Cougar Fire Support Vehicle is a light, wheeled vehicle that can trace its lineage back to the 1970s’ Swiss-built Mowag Piranha – a multi-role family of vehicles that had 4x4, 6x6, 8x8, and 10x10 wheel conﬁgurations. Cheaper to build and easier to transport than a tracked vehicle, the Cougar is also less aggressive-looking, making it ideal for peace-keeping and peace-enforcement roles.

THE COUGAR was ordered for the Canadian Armed Forces in 1977 as part of a family of three Armoured Vehicle General Purpose (AVGP) fighting vehicles – the other two being the Grizzly armoured personnel carrier, and the Husky wheeled maintenance and recovery vehicle. Rather than being built from scratch, it was developed from the proven design of the Mowag Piranha I, which first saw service in 1974. The Cougar was intended to equip armoured units that were not issued with Leopard tanks (see pp.150–53), and it was REAR VIEW used in Canada for training in a reconnaissance and later a fire support role. The vehicle has the basic 6x6 hull, with the driver at the front, next to the Detroit diesel engine, and two further crew members, the commander and the gunner, in the turret. It is fitted with the British Scorpion light tank turret (see pp.192–95), complete with a 76mm gun, a co-axial machine-gun, and eight smoke dischargers. Ten rounds for the main gun are carried in the turret and a further 30 rounds are stored in the hull. The rear compartment also has room for two further troops. The Cougar saw peace-keeping service in Bosnia with IFOR – the Implementation Force that was sent to ensure peace in the region after the signing of the Dayton Peace Accords in 1995. The vehicle has now been withdrawn from service, along with the other two AVGP vehicles.

SPECIFICATIONS Name

Cougar AVPG

Date

1976

Origin

Canada

Production

496

Engine

Detroit Diesel 6V53T 2-cycle turbocharged, 275hp

Weight

10.7 tonnes (11.8 tons)

Main armament

76mm L2A1

Secondary armament

7.62mm C6 machine-gun

Crew

Armour thickness

10mm (0.4in)

Gunner Commander

Driver

76mm main armament

Radio aerial

Klaxon

Engine hatch THREE-QUARTER VIEW

Pneumatic tyres

Flag of Canada The maple leaf has long been a symbol of Canada, and took pride of place on the Canadian ﬂag in 1965. Here it features on the side of the Canadianbuilt Cougar.

Versatile machine The Cougar is one of the many wheeled armoured vehicles based on a 6x6 or 8x8 chassis that came into service at the end of the 20th century. Faster, lighter, and cheaper, these vehicles have taken on a number of roles that were previously carried out by tanks.

164 . THE COLD WAR

EXTERIOR

The Cougar’s boat-shaped hull helps direct blast away from its underside – a vital defence against mines, which can easily overturn a ﬂat-hulled vehicle. Its multiple driven wheels are a futher defence, enabling it to survive the loss of any single wheel – a mine would otherwise completely incapacitate the vehicle. 4

1. Tactical number 2. Headlamp 3. Sidelight and indicator 4. Driver’s periscopes and hatch 5. Stowed wire cutter and textured surface for grip 6. Smoke dischargers 7. Exhaust outlets 8. Gunner’s periscope with wiper blade 9. Suspension bracket 10. Hull vision port 11. Rear light cluster 12

COUGAR . 165 6

INTERIOR The interior is divided into two compartments. The front compartment houses the driver with the commander and gunner in the turret above. The rear one, which has two vertical doors at the back, contains a bench and space for a small number of troops, plus a store of projectiles for the 76mm main gun.

12. Looking down into gunner’s seat 13. Commander’s sight 14. Main gun position showing turret interior 15. Main gun breech ring 16. Monocular gunner’s sight 17. Turret ancillaries control box 18. Traverse handwheel 19. Selector for co-axial machine-gun or main gun 20. Quadrant ﬁre control gear 21. Driver’s seat 22. Driver’s position with instruments and periscopes 23. Driver’s controls 24. Steering wheel 25. Gear lever 26. Handbrake 27. Rear compartment with passenger seats and ammunition stowage 16

Flame-throwing tanks Flame weapons have been in use since ancient times, and were used effectively as man-portable weapons in World War I. They often had a major psychological impact – sometimes their very presence caused surrender. However, they were limited by their short range, the amount of fuel that could be carried, and their vulnerability. Some of these issues, however, could be overcome by mounting a ﬂame-thrower on a vehicle.

ADAPTED VEHICLES The Italian army produced a ﬂame-throwing tankette in 1935, the L3 Lf, which saw extensive service before and during the early period of World War II, as did a ﬂame-thrower mounted

on the Russian T-26 tank. The German army mounted flamethrowers on half-tracks and on Panzer III tanks, particularly with urban operations in mind, where they could be used to clear bunkers and houses. In Britain, flame-throwers were fitted to Universal Carriers to form the Wasp, or to Churchill tanks to make the Crocodile, which towed an armoured trailer of fuel and could fire up to 80 one-second bursts. Flamethrowing tanks continued to be used into the 21st century.

A US Marine Corps M67 “Zippo” tank, one of 109 converted M48 Pattons, ﬂames a village near Binh Son in the Quang Ngai Province, 1969.

168 . THE COLD WAR

Armoured Reconnaissance Vehicles

.30 Browning machine-gun

Reconnaissance vehicles were not intended to fight, but to find enemy forces and report back. This role drove their design, which emphasized mobility over protection to the point that many were light enough to float across rivers. They were armed with machine-guns or light cannon designed for self-defence only – their main weapon was still the radio. Wheeled vehicles allowed for a faster and quieter mobility, although their limitations on rough terrain led to several countries using tracked vehicles instead. Painted in UN colours

r FV701(E) Ferret Mark 2/5 Date 1952 Country UK Weight 4.4 tonnes (4.8 tons) Engine Rolls-Royce B60 Mark 6A petrol, 129hp Main armament .30 Browning M1919 machine-gun

The development of Ferret began in 1947 as a replacement for the successful Dingo. The Mark I had an open top like the Dingo, but most had a machine-gun turret, as here. Its main roles were reconnaissance and liaison, but some variants carried anti-tank missiles. A total of 4,409 were built, ﬁnding service in more than 30 countries.

Watertight hull

Spare wheel

u BRDM 1 Date 1957 Country Soviet Union Weight 5.6 tonnes (6.2 tons) Engine GAZ-40P petrol, 90hp Main armament 7.62mm SGMB machine-gun

The BRDM 1 was fully amphibious. It was powered by a waterjet, had four-wheel drive, and had four extra wheels under the belly that could be lowered on rough ground. Its variants included Nuclear, Biological, Chemical (NBC) reconnaissance and command vehicles, and a variety of anti-tank missile launchers. The BRDM 1 was exported to around 50 countries.

 BRDM 2 Date 1962 Country Soviet Union

20mm cannon

Weight 7 tonnes (7.7 tons) Engine GAZ-41 V8 petrol, 140hp Main armament 14.5mm KPVT machine-gun

Sloped hull armour

Many limitations of the BRDM-1 were corrected in its successor, the BRDM 2. This featured an NBC protection system, better sights, and an armoured turret housing its machine-gun. It retained the BRDM-1’s belly wheels and its amphibious capability.

Driver's hatch

u Schutzenpanzer (SPz) 11.2

A French design, only adopted by West Germany, the SPz 11.2 was mainly used for reconnaissance, with variants emplyed as mortar Weight 8.2 tonnes (9.1 tons) carriers, artillery forward observation Engine Hotchkiss 6-cylinder petrol, 164hp and command vehicles, and Main armament 20mm Hispano-Suiza ambulances. More than 2,300 HS.820 cannon were built, serving until 1982. Date 1958 Country France, West Germany

Retracted belly wheels

169

r Lynx Command and Reconnaissance Vehicle Date 1968 Country USA Weight 8.7 tonnes (9.6 tons) Engine Detroit Diesel 6V-53 diesel, 215hp Main armament 25mm Oerlikon KBA cannon

The Lynx, which shared many components with the M113 Armoured Personnel Carrier, was bought by Canada and the Netherlands. The two countries conﬁgured their vehicles slightly differently. Both versions had a three-man crew and a .50 Browning M2 machine-gun, which the Dutch later replaced with the 25mm cannon.

Engine ventilation

 FV721 Fox Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Wheeled) Date 1973 Country UK Weight 6.1 tonnes (6.7 tons) Engine Jaguar XK petrol, 195hp Main armament 30mm L21A1 Rarden cannon Developed from the Ferret, the Fox was the wheeled counterpart of the tracked CVR(T). It was mainly used by infantry units. Less successful than Ferret and CVR(T), the Fox was found to be unstable under certain driving conditions and was withdrawn from service in 1994. Its turret was mated with the retired Scorpion hull to produce the Sabre vehicle.

Stowage bin

20mm MK 20 Rh202 cannon Smoke grenade dischargers

 Panhard Véhicule Blindé Léger (VBL) Date 1990 Country France Weight 3.6 tonnes (4 tons) Engine Peugeot XD 3T diesel, 105hp Main armament Varies The Panhard VBL was designed as a lightweight armoured vehicle to be used for reconnaissance and anti-tank warfare. It has been widely exported, particularly to Africa and Asia, and today the French also use a longer version as a command vehicle. It has seen service in the Balkans, Somalia, Lebanon, Afghanistan, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, and Mali.

u Spahpanzer 2 Luchs Date 1975 Country West Germany Weight 19.8 tonnes (21.8 tons) Engine Daimler Benz type OM 403VA multifuel, 390hp Main armament 20mm Rheinmetall MK 20 Rh202 cannon The replacement for the Spz 11.2, the Luchs was a signiﬁcant departure from its predecessor, being wheeled, amphibious, and much bigger. Each of its four axles could be steered, and it had a driver at each end, enabling easy escape from dangerous situations. It was also extremely quiet – a major advantage in a reconnaissance vehicle.

170 . THE COLD WAR

Tracked Armoured Personnel Carriers A fully tracked, fully armoured vehicle that could carry infantry into battle alongside tanks has been sought since the latter’s invention, and indeed the ﬁrst, the Mark IX (see p.32), was ready in late 1918. It was not until the 1950s, however, that they began to become widespread. Many early designs resembled boxes on tracks, having only light armour and ﬁrepower that rarely extended beyond a machine-gun. Few had the mobility to keep up with tanks over rough terrain.

u M75 Date 1952 Country USA Weight 18.8 tonnes (20.7 tons) Engine Continental AO-895-4 petrol, 295hp

Spare fuel tank

Troop compartment accommodates 20

Main armament .50 Browning M2 machine-gun

The M75 could carry a standard US infantry squad of 11 men, who accessed the vehicle through double doors at the rear. Its running gear was based on the M41 light tank, but overall it was too heavy, tall, and expensive, and its production ended after 1,729 had been built. Belgium was gifted 600, which they operated until the 1980s.

Trim vane for fording water

Room for two crew and 11 passengers Rubber road wheels aid buoyancy

 BTR-50P Date 1954 Country Soviet Union Weight 14.2 tonnes (15.7 tons) Engine Model V-6 diesel, 240hp Main armament 7.62mm SGMB machine-gun

 M59 Date 1954 Country USA Weight 19.3 tonnes (21.3 tons) Engine 2 x General Motors Model 302 petrol, 127hp each Main armament .50 Browning M2 machine-gun

The BTR-50P was based on the PT-76 light tank and shared its parent’s amphibious capability. Originally open-topped, it could carry 20 infantrymen, who climbed in and out over the sides. Early vehicles also had ramps to allow a towed artillery piece to be carried on the engine deck. A wide range of variants were used by dozens of nations.

The lighter, lower, and cheaper replacement for the M75, the M59 added amphibious capability but was less well armoured. Infantrymen now used a ramp to access the vehicle, which, along with folding seats, made it a more useful cargo carrier. Its twin engines were considered unreliable, and by the mid-1960s it was being retired.

Room for three crew and 10 passengers

u AMX VCI Date 1957 Country France Weight 15 tonnes (16.6 tons) Engine Detroit Diesel 6V-53T diesel, 280hp Main armament .50 Browning M2 machine-gun

The VCI chassis was based on the AMX-13 tank. Ten infantrymen entered through the two rear doors; ﬁring ports were mounted on each of these and the hull. The machine-gun was replaced with a 20mm cannon on some vehicles. Variants included a radar carrier, engineer vehicle, mortar carrier, and ambulance.

TRACKED ARMOURED PERSONNEL CARRIERS . 171

l Type SU 60

 M113A1

Date 1960 Country Japan

Date 1960 Country USA

Weight 13.2 tonnes (14.6 tons)

Weight 11 tonnes (12.1 tons)

Engine Mitsubishi 8HA21 WT diesel, 220hp

Engine Detroit Diesel 6V-53 diesel, 212hp

Main armament .50 Browning M2 machine-gun

By the late 1950s, Japan’s economy had recovered enough for the country to be able to build its own military equipment. The Type SU 60 was one of its ﬁrst vehicles. It had a crew of four and space for six infantrymen. Unusually for a post-war vehicle, it was armed with a 7.62mm bow machine-gun.

Highly successful, more than 80,000 M113s were built in over 40 variants for at least 44 countries. Early vehicles had a petrol engine, but this was soon replaced by a diesel equivalent. Many users developed their own upgrades to keep the vehicles viable in the 21st century, and gave them nicknames that included “bathtub” and “elephant shoe”.

Smoke dischargers

Armour includes kevlar plates to protect against IEDs Side skirts protect tracks

r FV432 Bulldog Date 1963 Country UK Weight 15.2 tonnes (16.8 tons) Engine Rolls-Royce K60 No4 Mk 4F multifuel, 240hp Main armament 7.62mm L7 machine-gun The standard British APC for almost 30 years, the FV432 remains in use in the 21st century. The latest Bulldog variant was developed for service in Iraq and features a new engine and transmission, extra armour, and improved systems. It is part of the FV430 family, which also includes mortar, ambulance, command, communications, and recovery vehicles.

172 . THE COLD WAR

Tracked Armoured Personnel Carriers (cont.) Infantry generally used APCs as transport, dismounting to fight on foot when they encountered enemy forces. In certain specific circumstances, however, they were used for mounted combat. In particular, American and South Vietnamese forces in Vietnam appreciated the mobility offered by their M113s, which they modified with extra machine-guns and armour for this role. In both Vietnam and Afghanistan the threat of mines saw many infantrymen opting to ride on top of the vehicle.

 YW701A Date 1964 Country China Weight 12.8 tonnes (14.1 tons) Engine BF8L 413F diesel, 320hp Main armament 12.7mm Type 54 machine-gun

r Bv202 Date 1964 Country Sweden Weight 3.2 tonnes (3.5 tons) Engine Volvo B20B petrol, 97hp Main armament None Designed for high mobility over the snow and bog of northern Sweden, the Bv202 had extremely low ground pressure and was steered by hydraulic rams located between its two cabs. The rear cab could carry eight infantry. It was sold to the UK and neighbouring Norway, who expected to deploy it in the Arctic.

Front cab contains crew of two

Machine-gun mounting with 360-degree traverse

The YW701A command vehicle was a high-roofed variant of the Type 63 or YW531 APC. This was the ﬁrst Chinese armoured vehicle designed with no input from the Soviet Union. It could carry up to 13 infantrymen, plus two crew. The Type 63 and its variants were widely exported and were used in combat by Vietnam and Iraq.

Trim vane used when fording rivers

l Pbv 302 Date 1966 Country Sweden Weight 13.5 tonnes (14.9 tons) Engine Volvo-Penta Model THD 100B diesel, 280hp Main armament 20mm Hispano-Suiza HS.404 cannon

Steel hull protects against small arms ﬁre

The Pbv 302 had a crew of three and carried eight infantrymen, who entered the vehicle through its twin doors at the rear. It was used exclusively by Sweden, and its variants included command, observation post, and radio relay. Vehicles used on UN missions received extra armour and improved automotive systems.

T R A C K E D A R M O U R E D P E R S O N N E L C A R R I E R S ( C O N T. ) . 1 73

r AAV7A1 Date 1971 Country USA Weight 25.3 tonnes (27.9 tons) Engine Cummins VT400 diesel, 400hp Main armament .50 Browning M2 machinegun, MK 19 40mm Automatic Grenade Launcher Originally called the LVTP-7, this vehicle was built for the US Marine Corps as their latest amphibious tractor, or “amtrac”. Around 1,500 have been built and sold around the world, and it has received numerous upgrades, the latest incorporating M2 Bradley automotive components. It can carry up to 25 marines.

Light armour aids buoyancy

Infra-red driving lights

l Type 73 Date 1973 Country Japan Weight 13.3 tonnes (14.7 tons) Engine Mitsubishi 4ZF diesel, 300hp Main armament .50 Browning M2 machine-gun

The successor to the Type SU60, the Type 73 also had a bow machine-gun. It could carry nine infantrymen, with one generally acting as the machinegunner, and had a three-man crew. In common with other Japanesedesigned military equipment, it has never been exported nor seen combat.

Room for six in the front cabin

Room for 11 in the rear cabin

r Bv206 Date 1980 Country Sweden Weight 6.6 tonnes (7.3 tons) Engine Ford V6 petrol, 136hp Main armament None Larger and more capable than the Bv202, the Bv206 was sold to more than 20 countries and many civilian groups, including search-and-rescue units. An armoured version called the Bv206S has also been introduced and widely sold. Both have high mobility and are light enough to be lifted by larger helicopters.

12.7mm Type 54 machine-gun Stowage boxes

r YW 534 Date 1990 Country China Weight 14.5 tonnes (16 tons) Engine Deutz BF8L413F diesel, 320hp Main armament 12.7mm Type 54 machine-gun Also known as the Type 89, this APC was developed from the very similar YW 531H, or Type 85, which also carries 13 infantry. In addition to the standard variants (ambulance, command post, and engineer vehicles) the YW 534’s chassis has been used for rocket launchers, anti-tank guided missiles, and self-propelled artillery.

All four tracks are driven

Tracks propel vehicle in water

The Soviet endgame The Cold War saw the build-up of thousands of tanks in Europe. Countries of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) manufactured tanks that tended to have a technological edge over the more numerous, but simpler, Soviet bloc tanks. The performance of Soviet-built tanks in conﬂicts in the Middle East and other regions gave the West and NATO a comforting sense of the superiority of their equipment: individually, the tanks of the West often beat the technical speciﬁcations of the Eastern bloc vehicles. However, Soviet high command’s operational plan was based on many thousands of tanks from the Red Army and satellite countries – such as these Hungarian T-72s – sweeping West in vast numbers, with air and infantry support.

To face this threat, Western powers looked for examples of a smaller, highly trained, and technically superior force holding off a larger but less sophisticated force. As a result, NATO commanders visited the World War II battleﬁelds of Normandy, France, on “staff rides” to try and learn lessons on how the smaller German tank forces held off the Allies’ armour. Fortunately, the Cold War never became “hot”, and the lessons from Normandy were not put to the test.

Hungarian tank crewmen operate Soviet T-72s during manoeuvres in Tata, northwest Hungary, in 1990.

1 76 . T H E CO L D WA R

Tracked Infantry Fighting Vehicles Armoured Personnel Carriers (APCs) allowed infantry to operate alongside tanks, but their thinner armour, lighter firepower, and limited mobility left them vulnerable to attack. To rectify this, designers turned their attention to developing vehicles that could not only fight alongside tanks, but freed their infantry to engage the enemy without leaving the vehicle. These new infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) greatly sped up operations, and gave the crew greater protection against conventional threats and the atmospheric contamination expected on a nuclear battlefield.

 BMP-1 Date 1966 Country Soviet Union Weight 13.5 tonnes (14.9 tons)

 Schützenpanzer Lang HS.30 Date 1958 Country West Germany

Characteristically low proﬁle

Weight 14.6 tonnes (16.1 tons) Engine Rolls-Royce B81 Mark 80F petrol, 220hp Main armament 20mm Hispano-Suiza HS.820 cannon According to West German military doctrine, tanks, infantry, and infantry carriers were to fight alongside each other. Accordingly, the Schützenpanzer Lang was more heavily armed and armoured than contemporary APCs, and had a lower profile. It had a capacity for five infantry, who entered and left via roof hatches. Unreliable at first, it improved after costly modification.

Engine UTD 20 diesel, 300hp

73mm 2A28 smoothbore gun

Main armament 73mm 2A28 smoothbore gun The appearance of the BMP-1, the first true IFV, caused great concern in the West. Its firepower, protection, and capacity for eight infantrymen were unprecedented. However, it had flaws: it was cramped, vulnerable to mines, and its fuel tanks were located between the infantry’s seats.

Light armour suitable for airdropping Individual suspension on ﬁrst and sixth wheels

r BMD-1 Date 1969 Country Soviet Union Weight 7.5 tonnes (8.3 tons) Engine 5D-20 diesel, 240hp Main armament 73mm 2A28 smoothbore gun

A lightly armoured IFV for Soviet Airborne Troops, the BMD-1 could be dropped by parachute. It used the same turret as the BMP-1 and served alongside the turretless BTR-D APC, which carried 10 infantry. The BMP-1 carried four infantry and had a four-man crew, including a bow gunner.

T R A C K E D I N FA N T RY F I G H T I N G V E H I C L E S . 1 7 7

Entry ramp at rear

Smoke grenade dischargers

Armoured skirt

20mm Nexter M693 cannon

l Marder 1

 AMX 10P

Date 1971 Country West Germany

Date 1973 Country France

Weight 35 tonnes (38.5 tons)

Weight 14.5 tonnes (16 tons)

Engine MTU MB 833 Ea-500 diesel, 600hp

Engine Hispano-Suiza HS 115 diesel, 260hp

Main armament 20mm Rheinmetall Rh202 cannon

Main armament 20mm Nexter M693 cannon

The first Western IFV, the Marder carried six infantrymen. Early versions had firing ports and a remotely controlled machine-gun above the rear ramp. Later, thicker armour and the MILAN anti-tank missile were added. Marder served throughout the Cold War, but first saw service in Kosovo in 1999.

The ﬁrst French IFV carried eight infantrymen and a crew of three who entered and exited through a ramp at the rear. The AMX 10P was sold to various countries, including Saudi Arabia, Singapore, and Indonesia, the latter receiving a variant with a 90mm gun designed for her marine corps.

Stowage bin

r AIFV (Armoured Infantry

Variant armed with .50 Browning M2

Fighting Vehicle) Date 1977 Country USA Weight 13.7 tonnes (15.1 tons) Engine Detroit Diesel 6V-53T diesel, 267hp Main armament 25mm Oerlikon KBA-B02 cannon

Welded rolled steel armour

The AIFV was based on the M113 APC, but had ﬁring ports, a turret, thicker armour, and an infantry capacity of seven. Its largest user was the Netherlands, which operated over 2,000 vehicles in several variants (naming it YPR-765), some of which saw action in Afghanistan.

Ground clearance of 37cm (15in)

Turret for commander and gunner Hull ﬁring ports Engine compartment forward right

r BMP-2 Date 1980 Country Soviet Union Weight 14.3 tonnes (15.8 tons) Engine UTD 20/3 diesel, 300hp Main armament 30mm 2A42 cannon Shortcomings in the BMP-1 led to the development of the BMP-2. Its cannon had a much higher rate of ﬁre and elevation, and its two-man turret gave the commander a better view. It carried seven infantry and served in Chechnya and Afghanistan. Like the BMP-1, it was widely exported.

Driver’s position forward left

178 . THE COLD WAR

Tracked Infantry Fighting Vehicles (cont.) The Soviet BMP-1 set the template for IFV design. The infantry it carried could fire their own weapons from inside the vehicle, while it had a powerful main gun and an anti-tank missile launcher of its own. It also had much thicker armour than an APC. Western nations followed the Soviet example, although firing ports were less common: firing from them was deemed impractical, and many users eventually covered them with extra armour.

30mm 2A42 cannon

u M2 Bradley

One of ﬁve ﬁring ports

Date 1983 Country USA Weight 32.1 tonnes (35.4 tons) Engine Cummins VTA-903T diesel, 600hp Main armament 25mm M242 cannon

Trim vane for fording rivers

 BMD-2 Date 1985 Country Soviet Union Weight 8.2 tonnes (9.1 tons) Engine 5D-20 diesel, 240hp Main armament 30mm 2A42 cannon

A Soviet Airborne Troops IFV, the BMD-2 is an improved version of the BMD-1. It has a slightly modiﬁed hull and a new turret, with high elevation for the cannon. However, its armour is still thin – protection against little more than machine-gun bullets and shrapnel.

Roadside bomb protection device

r Warrior Date 1986 Country UK Weight 28 tonnes (30.9 tons) Engine Perkins CV-8 TCA diesel, 550hp Main armament 30mm L21A1 RARDEN cannon The Warrior IFV (FV510) originally carried seven infantry. In the upgraded version seen here this was reduced to six, although the seats provided better protection against mine blasts. Suspension and crew visibility were also improved. Extra armour and electronic counter-measures were added for service in the Gulf, the Balkans, and Afghanistan. Command-post, repair, and recovery variants have also been developed since.

The M2 Bradley suffered from a troubled and protracted development, but proved itself in combat. Its TOW anti-tank missile launcher is particularly popular with its three crew and six infantrymen. Upgrades have improved its armour, sights, and electronic systems, and added space for a seventh infantryman.

Radio antenna

30mm L21A1 RARDEN cannon

179

r Type 89 Date 1989 Country Japan Weight 27 tonnes (29.8 tons) Engine Mitsubishi 6SY31 WA diesel, 600hp Main armament 35mm Oerlikon KDE cannon

Developed during the 1980s, the Type 89 is used by Japan only. It carries seven infantrymen and is ﬁtted with the Type 79 anti-tank missile and cannon. Infantry enter through two rear doors, similar to Soviet vehicles and unlike many Western designs, which usually have a single door or ramp.

100mm 2A70 smoothbore gun One of seven ﬁring ports

l BMP-3 Date 1990 Country Soviet Union Weight 18.7 tonnes (20.6 tons) Engine UTD 29M diesel, 500hp Main armament 1 x 100mm 2A70 smoothbore gun, 1 x 30mm 2A72 cannon The Soviet BMP-3 is an upgrade of the BMP-2. It is bigger, with more interior space, and is very heavily armed for an IFV. Unusually, its engine is at the rear, so passengers have to climb over it to get in and out. BMP-3s have seen combat in Chechnya and Yemen, and newer versions feature explosive reactive armour (ERA) and active protection systems.

Aluminium alloy and steel armour Electronic counter-measure (ECM) systems help block enemy signals to roadside bombs Lack of gun ports allows additional hull armour

 BMD-3 Date 1990 Country Soviet Union Weight 13.2 tonnes (14.6 tons) Engine 2V-06-02 diesel, 450 hp

Bar armour protects against RPGs

Steel turret for commander and gunner

Main armament 30mm 2A42 Based on a new and larger hull, the BMD-3 carries a range of weaponry to support airborne forces, including the Konkurs anti-tank guided missile. It can be airdropped with its three crewmembers and four infantrymen inside. Two of the infantry can operate a bow-mounted 30mm grenade launcher and 5.45mm machine-gun. A variant, named 2S25, is armed with a 125mm anti-tank gun.

180 . THE COLD WAR

Wheeled Troop Carriers

 BTR-152

Wheeled personnel carriers remained in widespread use throughout the Cold War. They often shared automotive components with their more heavily armed counterparts, which made them easier and cheaper to build. However, few of them had the armour or firepower to operate on the front line. For this reason, some countries, such as the Soviet Union, West Germany, and the UK, split their fleets, equipping front-line forces with tracked infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs), and restricting wheeled vehicles to units tasked as reinforcements or for defensive operations.

Soviet insignia

Date 1950 Country Soviet Union Weight 10.1 tonnes (11.1 tons) Engine ZIS-123 petrol, 110hp Main armament 7.62mm SGMB machine-gun Larger and more mobile than the BTR-40, the BTR-152 could carry 15 infantrymen. Later models had an armoured roof and the ﬁrst Soviet central tyre pressure regulation system. Over 12,500 BTR-152s of all variants were built, and saw decades of service around the world.

Armoured door to driver’s compartment

Sloped front armour

d FV603 Saracen Date 1952 Country UK Weight 10.2 tonnes (11.2 tons) Engine Rolls-Royce B80 Mk 6A petrol, 160hp Main armament .30 Browning M1919 machine-gun

Driver’s vision port

u BTR-40 Date 1950 Country Soviet Union Weight 5.3 tonnes (5.8 tons) Engine GAZ-40 petrol, 80hp Main armament 7.62mm SGMB machine-gun The ﬁrst Soviet APC, the BTR-40 was a four-wheel drive, open-topped vehicle based on a light truck. It could carry eight infantrymen, or six in the later BTR-40B variant that had an armoured roof. Sold around the world, it saw combat in Korea, Hungary, Vietnam, and the Middle East.

The British Army’s standard APC during the 1950s, the Saracen had a drivetrain that gave excellent mobility. It had a capacity for 10 infantrymen, and its variants included a command vehicle, an ambulance, and an internal security version for use in Northern Ireland.

181

u BTR-60PA Date 1963 Country Soviet Union Weight 10 tonnes (11 tons) Engine 2 x GAZ-49B petrol, 90hp each Main armament 7.62mm SGMB machine-gun

The amphibious BTR-60PA, with its eightwheel drive and waterjet, was far more versatile than its predecessors. The ﬁrst version was open-topped, but later models had roof armour and an NBC system – albeit at the cost of reduced personnel capacity.

u OT-64 SKOT Date 1964 Country Czechoslovakia, Poland Weight 14.5 tonnes (16 tons) Engine Tatra 928-18 diesel, 180hp Main armament 14.5mm KPVT machine-gun

All-welded steel body

Although the Warsaw Pact countries were tightly controlled by the Soviet Union, they were still able to design their own equipment. Poland and Czechoslovakia collaborated on the OT-64 instead of using the BTR-60. Its main advantages were better armour protection and doors at the rear.

Tools on hull

u YP-408 Date 1964 Country Netherlands Weight 12 tonnes (13.2 tons) Engine DAF DS 575 petrol, 165hp Main armament .50 Browning M2 machine-gun

The YP-408 had six-wheel drive, its second axle being unpowered. The basic APC version could carry 10 infantrymen. Mortar, command, ambulance, and anti-tank variants were developed, the Dutch using some as part of the UN force in Lebanon from 1979–85.

Side doors between middle wheels

Searchlight

 Panhard M3 Date 1971 Country France Weight 6.1 tonnes (6.7 tons) Engine Panhard Defence Model 4HD petrol, 90hp Main armament 7.62mm machine-gun A private venture based on the successful AML armoured car, the M3 was in production for 15 years, with around 1,500 sold to almost 30 countries, mainly in Africa. The APC version could carry 10 infantrymen, and variants included anti-aircraft, repair, command, engineer, and ambulance models.

 BTR 70 Date 1972 Country Soviet Union Weight 11.7 tonnes (12.9 tons) Engine 2 x GAZ-40P petrol, 180hp each Main armament 14.5mm KPVT machine-gun

A faster, more mobile, and better protected version of the BTR-60, the BTR-70 was also more accessible, with doors placed between the second and third wheels. Unlike BTR-60, which fought in many conﬂicts, the BTR-70 only saw service in Afghanistan during the Cold War.

182 . THE COLD WAR

Wheeled Troop Carriers (cont.)

r Véhicule de l’Avant Blindé Date 1976 Country France Weight 13 tonnes (14.3 tons) Engine Renault MIDS 06-20-45 diesel, 220hp

Some nations assessed wheeled carriers as being better suited to their requirements than tracked vehicles. This included many African countries, who operated carriers over large areas of relatively smooth terrain. With generally lighter weight and lower ground pressure, wheeled vehicles could often move through areas that their heavier tracked counterparts could not, and rubber tyres did less damage to local infrastructure than metal tracks. They also offered higher speeds, better reliability, and more protection against mines.

Main armament .50 Browning M2 machine-gun The Véhicule de l’Avant Blindé (VAB) was intended as a counterpart to the tracked AMX-10P. Featuring amphibious capability and NBC protection, it can carry 10 infantrymen. VABs have received hundreds of upgrades and continue in French service today. Its many variants include anti-aircraft-missile launcher, radar-carrier, and command-post models.

Windscreen can be covered by shutter

Pneumatic tyres

All-welded armoured steel

Aluminium hull protects against small-arms ﬁre

u Transportpanzer 1 Fuchs

The basic Fuchs APC carried 10 infantrymen, and variants included radar vehicles, supply carriers, and electronic warfare platforms. Weight 19 tonnes (20.9 tons) The NBC reconnaissance vehicle was the Engine Mercedes-Benz OM 402A diesel, 320hp most successful export version, its major Main armament 7.62mm MG3 machine-gun buyers being the UK and the US. Date 1979 Country West Germany

Riﬂe ports

u Blindado Medio de Ruedas (BMR) 600 The BMR-600 and its many variants have seen Date 1979 Country Spain Weight 14 tonnes (15.5 tons) Engine Pegaso 9157/8 diesel, 310hp Main armament .50 Browning M2 machine-gun

u Ratel 20 Date 1979 Country South Africa

25mm cannon

service in the Balkans, Lebanon, and Iraq, as well as Afghanistan. It shares components with the VEC M1 armoured car, and both vehicles have received an upgrade to M1 standard, involving a new engine and additional armour.

l LAV-25

Weight 19 tonnes (20.9 tons)

Date 1983 Country USA

Engine Bussing D 3256 BXTF diesel, 282hp

Weight 12.9 tonnes (14.2 tons)

Main armament 20mm M693 cannon

Engine Detroit Diesel 6V53T diesel, 275hp

The arms embargo and the unique conditions facing South African forces during the 1970s and ‘80s forced them to design their own combat vehicles, using wheeled vehicles for their mobility and range. More heavily armed Ratels equipped with a 90mm gun provided ﬁre support for the 20mm-armed vehicles.

Main armament 25mm M242 cannon The US Marine Corps version of the MOWAG Piranha I, the LAV-25 is used mainly for reconnaissance. Its variants include anti-tank, command, and recovery vehicles. The ﬂeet has undergone upgrades to armour, suspension, and sights over time, and in response to experiences in the Persian Gulf and Afghanistan.

183

UN insignia

Commander’s cupola

Vision port

l AT 105 Saxon Date 1983 Country UK Weight 11.7 tonnes (12.9 tons) Engine Bedford 500 diesel, 164hp Main armament 7.62mm L7 machine-gun

Single engine in rear of hull

r BTR-80 Date 1984 Country Soviet Union Weight 13.6 tonnes (15 tons) Engine Kamaz 7403 diesel, 260hp Main armament 14.5mm KPVT machine-gun

The Saxon was intended for British infantry units that would move from the UK to West Germany if war broke out. Lightly armoured but well protected against mines, it was based on the Bedford TM truck chassis to keep costs down. It saw service in the Balkans, Iraq, and Afghanistan.

Variant armed with 120mm NONA mortar

The BTR-80 was based on its predecessor, the BTR-70. Its single diesel engine was a signiﬁcant advance, as were the larger two-piece doors that allowed seven infantrymen to disembark safely, even with the vehicle in motion.

Capacity for 10 personnel

l BOV Date 1987 Country Yugoslavia Weight 9.4 tonnes (10.4 tons) Engine Deutz F6L 413 F diesel, 154hp Main armament Varies

Developed during the early 1980s, the BOVs were used by the Yugoslav Army and Milicija (Police). The Milicija vehicle was optimized for internal security and riot control. The BOV saw heavy use during the Yugoslav Wars as the country disintegrated. It remains in service with successor states into the 2010s.

Anti-tank defences The German army quickly formulated anti-tank tactics after the first tank attack in September 1916. Artillery moved nearer to the frontline: crews hid the guns and manhandled them into firing position should the enemy attack. The 77mm field gun was converted to an anti-tank weapon by making the wheels smaller so the gun could be more easily hidden; trench mortars such as the 7.58cm Minenwerfer were given new mounts to enable them to be more easily fired at tanks, and a new 13mm anti-tank rifle was put into production. Engineers dug hidden pits deep enough to stop a tank, and trenches were widened – 2.5m-wide (8ft) was thought to be wide enough for the purpose. Another simple tactic was to bury artillery shells – again on likely approach routes – and place a pressure fuse in the shell. The round would then have a board placed over it to increase the pressure area: a charge of around 12–25kg (27–55lb) was considered enough to destroy a tank.

THE DOCTRINE OF MINES Anti-tank mines in their hundreds of thousands were used in World War II. A mine need not destroy a tank, only blow off or break a track: the crew would then have to either abandon the tank or try and repair it, making them vulnerable to machine-gun ﬁre and other weapons covering the mineﬁeld. Because of the threat of ditches, traps, and mines, various engineering vehicles were developed – such as these Combat Engineer Tractors – to overcome obstacles and allow an armoured advance to continue. Combat Engineer Tractors of the British 7th Armoured Brigade clear mines, January 7, 1991. Just over a week later they begin the liberation of Kuwait.

186 . THE COLD WAR

Engineering and Specialist Vehicles Hobart's Funnies (see pp.116–17) had proven their worth during World War II, and after the war the idea of building specialist vehicles based on a tank chassis became common. Armoured Personnel Carriers (APCs) often received this treatment too, with a dizzying array of vehicles developed. These versatile vehicles have been used as mortar carriers, anti-tank missile launchers, signals vehicles, artillery observation posts, command posts, anti-aircraft missile launchers, and many other roles.

r Centurion BARV Date 1960 Country UK Weight 40.6 tonnes (44.8 tons) Engine Rolls-Royce Meteor Mark IVB petrol, 650hp Main armament None Beach Armoured Recovery Vehicles (BARVs) were used to pull vehicles out of the sea, or to push landing craft back in. The Centurion BARV could wade through 2.9m (91/2ft) of water, although at this depth the driver relied on the commander for guidance. One member of the four-man crew was required to be a trained diver.

 Centurion Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers (AVRE)

165mm main gun used for destroying obstacles

Date 1963 Country UK Weight 50.8 tonnes (56 tons) Engine Rolls-Royce Meteor Mark IVB petrol, 650hp Main armament 165mm L9 demolition gun The AVRE carried a wide range of equipment to allow engineers to do their work, with similar armour protection and mobility to the standard tank. It was ﬁtted with a dozer blade or a mine plough, and could carry a fascine or a roll of trackway. The AVRE was used in Northern Ireland in 1972 and the Gulf War in 1991.

Canvas canopy

u M548 Date 1965 Country USA Weight 13.4 tonnes (14.8 tons) Engine General Motors Model 6V-53 diesel, 215hp Main armament .50 Browning M2 machine-gun

An unarmoured cargo carrier using the running gear of M113 APC, the M548 was originally intended to carry artillery ammunition and gunners. Its mobility and 5.4-tonne (6-ton) capacity meant it was adapted for a wide range of roles, including launchers for the Chaparral and Rapier surface to air missiles. It has seen service in Vietnam, the Yom Kippur War, and the Gulf War.

 MT-LB Date 1970 Country Soviet Union Weight 13.3 tonnes (14.7 tons) Engine YaMZ 238 V diesel, 240hp Main armament 7.62mm PKT machine-gun

The amphibious MT-LB was developed as an armoured, all-terrain artillery tractor. It was widely used as a command post vehicle, chemical warfare reconnaissance vehicle, electronic warfare, and missile carrier. It also saw service as an APC, especially in Arctic regions where its low ground pressure gave it better mobility than other vehicles.

ENGINEERING AND SPECIALIST VEHICLES . 187

r Chieftain Armoured Vehicle Launched Bridge (AVLB) Date 1974 Country UK Weight 53.3 tonnes (58.7 tons) Engine Leyland L60 multifuel, 750hp

Folding bridge

Main armament None

Chieftain chassis

The Chieftain AVLB (shown here without a bridge) enabled armoured forces to cross rivers or obstacles. Powered by hydraulics, the vehicle could launch or recover its bridge in just three minutes. The largest bridge launched by Chieftain, the Number 8, could span a 23m (75ft) gap.

Headlamp

l Chieftain ARRV Date 1974 Country UK Weight 53.5 tonnes (59 tons) Engine Leyland L60 multifuel, 750hp Main armament None

The Chieftain Armoured Recovery and Repair Vehicle (ARRV) was based on the Chieftain Mark 5 hull and suspension, with the addition of an Atlas crane for lifting damaged vehicles and two winches. It saw service in the ﬁrst Gulf War in 1991.

Radar dish Dozer blade

u FV432 Cymbeline Mortar Locating Radar Towing cable

Date 1975 Country UK Weight 15.2 tonnes (16.8 tons) Engine Rolls-Royce K60 No4 Mk 4F multifuel, 240hp Main armament None

r Challenger Armoured Repair and Recovery Vehicle (CRARRV) Date 1991 Country UK Weight 61.2 tonnes (67.4 tons) Engine Perkins CV12 V-12 diesel, 1,200hp Main armament None

Drive sprocket

The CRARRV was based on the Challenger 1, although it has been upgraded to be compatible with the Challenger 2. It has a 50-tonne (55.1-ton) winch, a 6.5-tonne (7.2-ton) crane, a three-man crew, and space for the crew of the recovered tank. This version is ﬁtted with reactive armour, ECM, and underbelly protection.

Reactive armour

The Cymbeline Radar was used to track mortar shells back to their launch point, allowing rapid counter-attacks. The Mark 2 version was mounted on an FV432 APC. The large, open space inside these vehicles makes them suitable for a wide range of roles, while their mobility and protection enables them to operate further forwards than wheeled trucks.

188 . THE COLD WAR

CVR(T) Family Developed during the 1960s for the British Army, the Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked) family was a range of lightweight vehicles that were constructed from common components for ease of manufacture. They were lightly armoured and made of aluminium, and so could readily be moved by air. After decades of service with forces around the world, these vehicles were upgraded: the petrol engine was replaced by a more powerful diesel one, while the Stormer was developed with a lengthened chassis.

r FV101 Scorpion Date 1972 Country UK Weight 8.1 tonnes (8.9 tons) Engine Jaguar J60 No1 Mk100B petrol, 190hp Main armament 76mm L23A1 riﬂed gun The world’s fastest tank, at 82.2km/h (51.1mph), the Scorpion was a light reconnaissance vehicle with a threeman crew. It was by far the most widely exported CVR(T) vehicle, sold to around 20 countries. An upgraded variant with a 90mm gun was later developed.

Road wheels Stowage bin

l FV107 Scimitar Date 1974 Country UK Weight 7.8 tonnes (8.6 tons) Engine Jaguar J60 No1 Mk100B petrol, 190hp Main armament 30mm L21A1 RARDEN cannon

A version of the Scorpion with a lighter, faster ﬁring cannon, the Scimitar was intended for close reconnaissance. With their low ground pressure, Scimitars and Scorpions proved to be the only armoured vehicles that could negotiate the soft, muddy terrain of the Falklands in 1982.

Swingﬁre missile launcher Commander’s cupola

 FV102 Striker Date 1976 Country UK Weight 8.3 tonnes (9.2 tons) Engine Jaguar J60 No1 Mk100B petrol, 190hp Main armament Swingﬁre anti-tank guided missile launcher

The Striker carried the Swingfire anti-tank guided missile in a five-round launcher box on the armoured personnel carrier (APC) hull. Swingfire was a wire-guided missile that could turn in flight to hide the launcher’s location. It was used in the Persian Gulf in 1991 and 2003.

l FV103 Spartan Date 1977 Country UK Weight 8.1 tonnes (9 tons) Engine Jaguar J60 No1 Mk100B petrol, 190hp Main armament 7.62mm L7 machine-gun

An APC, the Spartan could carry ﬁve soldiers and two crew members. This capacity was too small for a standard British infantry section, so it was generally used to carry specialists such as anti-tank missile teams or mortar-ﬁre controllers.

Smoke grenade dischargers

l FV105 Sultan Date 1977 Country UK Weight 8.6 tonnes (9.5 tons) Engine Jaguar J60 No1 Mk100B petrol, 190hp Main armament 7.62mm L7 machine-gun The Sultan was used by commanders at all levels, including in units that were not equipped with other CVR(T) variants. It provided enough room for a map board and desk, space for multiple radios, and had a tent that could be attached to the rear to provide more space for the commanders.

C V R ( T ) FA M I LY . 1 8 9

76mm main gun

r FV106 Samson Date 1978 Country UK Weight 8.7 tonnes (9.6 tons) Engine Jaguar J60 No1 Mk100B petrol, 190hp Main armament None

The Samson was designed to repair and recover CVR(T)s. Its winch could be conﬁgured for towing or combined with an A-frame for use as a crane, an earth anchor to secure the vehicle, and smaller tools and equipment for its crew of ﬁtters.

Medic insignia Starstreak surface-toair missiles

r FV4333 Stormer

Driver’s hatch

Date 1991 Country UK Weight 13.5 tonnes (14.9 tons) Engine Cummins 6BTAAT250A diesel, 250hp Main armament Starstreak surface-to-air missile launcher

u FV104 Samaritan Date 1978 Country UK Weight 8.6 tonnes (9.5 tons) Engine Jaguar J60 No1 Mk100B petrol, 190hp Main armament None

The Samaritan was an armoured ambulance with a high-roofed hull, which gave the soldiers inside plenty of space to work. It also had a large rear door to enable easy access. The Samaritan could carry three stretchers or seated casualties, as well as medical personnel.

The Stormer was developed as a larger version of the CVR(T) family. Its variants – APC, ambulance, and bridgelayer – were sold to Indonesia. The British Army adopted it as a carrier for the Starstreak surface-to-air missile, and also used a ﬂatbed version ﬁtted with the Shielder anti-tank minelaying system.

d FV107 Scimitar Mark 2 Date 2011 Country UK Weight 12.2 tonnes (13.4 tons) Engine Cummins BTA diesel, 235hp

Commander’s periscope

Main armament 30mm L21A1 RARDEN cannon The threat of mines and improvised explosive devices (IEDs) in Afghanistan led to a comprehensive upgrade for the Scimitar. The Mark 2 used a remanufactured Spartan hull, a more powerful engine, upgraded suspension, add-on mine protection, and bar armour to defeat rocket-propelled grenade (RPG) warheads.

Bar armour

Idler wheel

Armour on wheels The ﬁrst AMX 10 RC (see p.160) was issued to the French Army in 1981. RC stands for “roues-canon”, or wheeled gun, and the aluminium turret carries a 105mm GIAT main gun – a tanksized gun in a wheeled vehicle that is not a tank.

WHEELS VERSUS TRACKS The differences in the abilities of wheeled and tracked vehicles may merge over time, but currently a vehicle must have tracks to be considered a tank. As a general rule, tracks have less ground pressure and can travel over terrain that wheels cannot; however, they tend to be noisier and wear out more quickly. As a result, tracks are usually more expensive. Wheels tend to be

faster than tracks, and have been assessed as appearing less threatening: they are often used for peace enforcement roles ahead of a tracked vehicle. As scouting and reconnaissance vehicles can be the ﬁrst to discover mines, the ability of wheeled vehicles to remain mobile after mine strikes make them well suited to these roles. Multi-wheeled armoured vehicles can lose one or even two wheels and continue to be mobile. A vehicle with a broken track, on the other hand, can be classed as a “mobility kill”, as two tracks are required for the vehicle to move. At the end of the Gulf War in 1991, French crews parade before their AMX 10 RC wheeled reconnaissance vehicles.

192 . THE COLD WAR

Scorpion CVR(T) The design of the Scorpion dates to the 1960s, when both tracked and wheeled reconnaissance vehicles were required by the British Army. The lightweight yet powerful Scorpion was created to meet the requirements of the Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked) – CVR(T) – role.

THE SCORPION was part of a family of vehicles with the same engines and transmissions built by British manufacturer Alvis. One of the requirements of the design was air portability: it was clad in aluminium armour to save weight, and two Scorpions could fit in the hold of a C130 Hercules aircraft. Its lightweight design gave its tracks a low ground pressure – in fact, the ground pressure was less than that REAR VIEW of a human foot. This lightness meant the Scorpion could travel across soft ground that would have been inaccessible to many other military vehicles, a trait that proved very useful in the British Army’s Falklands campaign in 1982. The Scorpion was initially fitted with the Jaguar J60 4.2-litre petrol engine, similar to that of the manufacturer’s famous E-type sports car. Like many British Army vehicles, these engines were later replaced by diesel variants, which were considered safer. The Scorpion was armed with a 76mm low-velocity gun that could fire a range of projectiles including smoke, High Explosive (HE), High Explosive Squash Head (HESH), and canister rounds. In theory, use of the HESH round gave the Scorpion a tank-killing capability, but its aluminium armour meant it was vulnerable to anything heavier than small arms fire – it would have to rely on speed and manoeuvrability to survive engagements with heavier tanks.

SPECIFICATIONS Name

FV101 Scorpion

Date

1973

Origin

Production

Over 3,000

Engine

Cummins BTA 5.9-litre diesel, 190hp

Gunner

Weight

8.1 tonnes (8.9 tons)

Driver

Main armament

76mm L23A1

Secondary armament

7.62mm L34A1

Crew

Armour thickness

12.7mm (0.5in)

Commander

Engine

SCORPION CVR(T) . 193

76mm L2A3 low-velocity gun

Drive sprocket positioned at front

THREEQUARTER VIEW

Hull bracket for ﬂotation screen

Vehicle name The Scorpion takes its name from its rear-mounted turret, which suggests a sting in the tail. Likewise, individual Scorpions have evocative names – such as “Retaliator”, which indicates a swift response.

Action Man’s vehicle The Scorpion CVR(T) was so successful that it was chosen to be immortalized as the vehicle driven by the popular children’s toy, Action Man.

194 . THE COLD WAR

EXTERIOR

Scorpions were intended to perform tasks such as reconnaissance and screening (providing cover for a main force). Features of the exterior reveal this role. The cable drum on the side of the turret, for instance, allows an observer to take a communications handset away from the vehicle into an observation post. At 12.7mm (0.5in) thick, its light aluminium armour offers protection against small arms ﬁre and shrapnel, but nothing heavier.

1. Insignia 2. Manoeuvring light 3. Driver’s periscope 4. Engine bay 5. Smoke grenade dischargers 6. Infrared light casing 7. Co-axial machine-gun 8. Commander’s periscope with wiper blade 9. Tools stowed on hull 10. Fire extinguisher 11. Camouﬂage netting basket 12. Cable drum 13. Track and idler wheel 14. Exhaust 5

SCORPION CVR(T) . 195 15

INTERIOR 25

The Scorpion could carry up to 40 rounds for the main gun and 3,000 rounds for the co-axial machine gun, but its best defence on the battlefield was its speed and mobility. Service vehicles were fitted as standard with nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) protection, image-intensifier night sights for the gunner and commander, and a small water tank and boiling facilities for cooking. 15. Looking down into commander’s position 16. Looking back at gunner’s position 17. Commander’s binocular gunsight 18. Radio 19. Turret interior from commander’s position 20. Gunner’s position with instruments and periscopes 21. Communication system control panel 22. Main gun breech 23. Turret traverse wheel with electronic control 24. Ammunition stowed by gunner’s position 25. Looking down into driver’s position 26. Driver’s instrument panel 27. Steering levers

After 1991

POST-COLD WAR

P O S T- C O L D W A R . 1 9 9

POST-COLD WAR The Berlin Wall fell in November 1989. By 1991, the Soviet Union had ceased to exist and the Cold War was over. The end of this era of international tension resulted in large scale reductions in military forces, with thousands of tanks and armoured vehicles scrapped or sold. Many nations retired large fleets of outmoded tanks, some dating back to the 1950s, and purchased modern, secondhand vehicles at a discount. The former communist nations of Eastern Europe also began restructuring their militaries along Western lines, with many joining NATO. Armoured vehicles found a new role in conflicts in the former Yugoslavia. United Nations and NATO peacekeepers used their presence to intimidate and keep apart warring factions, and to protect civilians. Outside Europe, where security threats were ongoing, tank development continued, with nations such as Israel, South Korea, Japan, China, Turkey, India, and Pakistan developing new vehicles. Older tanks have continued to prove their usefulness in conflicts across the world, especially against irregular forces. Advanced technology has begun to play a larger role in armoured vehicles. Developments in cameras, thermal sights, and networked communications have increased situational awareness for crews, both around their vehicles and across the battlefield. Increasingly powerful anti-tank weapons, especially in urban environments such as Chechnya and Syria, have spurred improvements in protection, including Active Protection Systems. Some of these can automatically shoot back at incoming projectiles, while others can interrupt guidance systems u Second Gulf War magazine covers or “hide” the tank. These suggest that, although Tank combat in the invasion of Iraq was often characterized by US M1 its place on the battlefield is again under threat, Abrams defeating Iraqi forces in older Soviet armour. the tank will endure.

“ Tanks being deployed far forward is an indication of offensive action; tanks in depth is an indication of defensive action.”

Key events r July 17, 1992 The CFE Treaty limits the amount of military equipment NATO and the Warsaw Pact may possess. r April 29, 1994 Operation Bøllebank is launched by Danish forces in Bosnia, the ﬁrst use of the Leopard 1 in combat. r December 31, 1994 Russia attempts to capture Grozny, Chechnya using armoured units, with heavy casualties. r March 2003 American and British armoured forces invade Iraq.

u Iraq War at night, 2004 A Bradley M2A2 infantry ﬁghting vehicle opens ﬁre in Samarra, Iraq.

r July 2006 In the Israeli–Hezbollah War, Israeli weaknesses in armoured warfare are shown up by Hezbollah’s sophisticated tactics and equipment. r September 2006 NATO first deploys tanks, Canadian Leopard C2s, to Afghanistan. Danish Leopard 2A5s and USMC M1A1 Abrams also fight there. r 2011–present The Syrian Civil War sees intense urban fighting between Syrian Army armoured units and rebels. r August 2014 Modern Russian tanks are observed in fighting in Eastern Ukraine between the government and Russian-backed separatists.

NORMAN SCHWARZKOPF, FORMER US ARMY GENERAL

r March 2015 In the Saudi-led intervention in Yemen, Houthi rebels use modern ATGMs to destroy Saudi tanks.

 A Merkava IV of the Israel Defence Forces manoeuvres with a mine-clearing device attached to the front of its hull.

r 2015 A World War II-era T-34/85 and SU-100 are seen in use in Yemen.

2 0 0 . P O S T- C O L D W A R

Counter-insurgency Vehicles Conventional vehicles are generally low to the ground with lightly armoured undersides, leaving them vulnerable to landmines. During the 1970s, the increasing use of such weapons by insurgents and terrorist organizations led to the development of armoured vehicles specifically designed to protect against mines. Rhodesia (modern-day Zimbabwe) was the first to encounter this problem; its solution was to protect the crew compartment by raising it higher and angling the underside to deflect the blast – so the vehicle might lose a wheel, but the crew would survive.

 Humber “Pig” Date 1958 Country UK Weight 5.8 tonnes (6.4 tons) Engine Rolls-Royce B60 Mk 5A petrol, 120hp Main armament None

r Shorland Mark 1 Date 1965 Country UK Weight 3.1 tonnes (3.5 tons) Engine Rover 4-cylinder petrol, 67hp Main armament 7.62mm machine-gun

Water tanks

Designed as an eight-man armoured personnel carrier, the Pig was hastily given extra armour and brought back into service as the conﬂict in Northern Ireland worsened. Some Pigs were modiﬁed for specialist roles, and the vehicle was used into the 1990s.

Used by the Royal Ulster Constabulary and Ulster Defence Regiment, the Shorland Mark 1 was based on the Land Rover Series IIA chassis. The armoured body was topped with a machine-gun turret. Successive upgrades improved the armour and engine power, with the ﬁnal versions being based on the more modern Land Rover Defender’s chassis.

Windscreen armour

Water pump

Headlamp

r Casspir Date 1979 Country South Africa Weight 10.9 tonnes (12 tons)

 Saracen Special Water Dispenser Date 1972 Country UK Weight 13.7 tonnes (15 tons) Engine Rolls-Royce B80 Mk 6A petrol, 160hp Main armament Water cannon

Engine Mercedes-Benz OM-352A diesel, 166hp

The Saracen was ﬁtted with a water cannon originally intended for riot control. Tests showed that the water cannon was powerful enough to seriously injure people hit by it, so it was instead used for Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD). The water was powerful enough to break up bombs without detonating them.

Main armament None

Storage bin Driver’s compartment

Frame for stability

Engine exhaust

Designed for the South African Police, who were involved in both riot control and ﬁghting in the Border War, the Casspir had an enclosed armoured body and windows. It could carry 12 passengers. This versatile vehicle was put to a range of uses including mine clearance, recovery, mortar carrier, and tanker.

l Buffel Date 1978 Country South Africa Weight 6.1 tonnes (6.7 tons) Engine Mercedes-Benz OM-352 diesel, 125hp Main armament None

Crew ladder

Water-ﬁlled tyres

The Buffel’s chassis and engine came from the Unimog truck, and the mine-resistant crew pod was opentopped, giving the 10 passengers an excellent field of view. The V-shaped floor deflected the blast away from the passengers, and the water-filled tyres helped further dissipate it. Buffels were used by the South African Army until the 1990s.

COUNTER-INSURGENCY VEHICLES . 201

Acommodates a driver, a commander, and nine troops

 Snatch Land Rover Date 1992 Country UK Weight 4.1 tonnes (4.5 tons) Engine Land Rover 300Tdi diesel, 111hp Main armament None

u Mamba

The British Army used a range of armoured Land Rovers in Northern Ireland. The Series III “Piglets”, fitted with Vehicle Protection Kits, gave way to the Glover-Webb armoured patrol vehicle (APV) and then the Snatch. The Snatch was deployed in Iraq and Afghanistan, where high casualties among its crews led to its replacement.

Date 1995 Country South Africa Weight 6.8 tonnes (7.5 tons) Engine Daimler-Benz OM352A diesel, 123hp Main armament None

The South African Army’s replacement for the Buffel, the Mamba added a roof and armoured windows. The Mark I was two-wheel drive and carried five troops, but later models were 4-wheel drive and carried nine passengers. The Mark II and its RG-31 variant proved popular for their high protection combined with a non-threatening appearance. Its development has continued into the 21st century.

All-welded steel-armour hull

One of two spare wheels

Crew compartment at rear 52mm bulletproof widows

One of 12 firing ports

V-shaped undercarriage deflects mine blasts 4x4 truck chassis

2 0 2 . P O S T- C O L D W A R

Counter-insurgency Vehicles (cont.) Political considerations often restricted the types of vehicles that could be used in counter-insurgency operations to lighter wheeled vehicles, which were often fitted with extra armour. The South African Border War of the 1980s saw the development of vehicles that protected against both mines and direct fire. When the Improvised Explosive Device (IED) threat began to arise in Iraq and Afghanistan during the 21st century, these designs formed the starting point for the American Mine-Resistant Ambush Protected (MRAP) vehicle programme.

 Buffalo Date 2002 Country USA Weight 34.5 tonnes (38.1 tons) Engine Caterpillar C13 Diesel, 440hp Main armament None

Designed to carry EOD personnel, the Buffalo is significantly longer and taller than other MRAPs. It is fitted with a 10m (33ft) articulated manipulator arm that can be used to uncover and disable IEDs. The Buffalo is also used by British, Canadian, French, Italian, and Pakistani forces.

Cameras provide situational awareness Armour protects gunner

6x6 chassis

 Mastiff Date 2002 Country UK Weight 23.6 tonnes (26 tons) Engine Caterpillar C7 diesel, 330hp Main armament .50 Browning M2 machine-gun

r Bushmaster Date 2003 Country Australia Weight 15.4 tonnes (17 tons) Engine Caterpillar 3126E diesel, 300hp Main armament Varies

Remote weapons station

The Mastiff is the British Army’s version of the Force Protection Cougar MRAP, which saved thousands of lives in Iraq and Afghanistan. Unlike Cougar, the Mastiff has armour plate instead of armoured side windows, and is fitted with bar armour.

The Bushmaster was designed to provide protected mobility for a nine-man infantry section over long distances. Its armour and mine protection made it popular in Iraq and Afghanistan. Australia has ordered over 1,000 variants, including command, mortar, ambulance, air defence, and route clearance.

203

Armoured door

 Husky

The British adopted the International MXT truck as the Husky Tactical Support Vehicle (Medium). The TSV Weight 6.9 tonnes (7.6 tons) programme provided load-carrying Engine MaxxForce D6.0L diesel, 340hp vehicles with equivalent protection Main armament 7.62mm L7 to combat vehicles, allowing them machine-gun to operate alongside each other. Date 2009 Country UK

 MaxxPro Date 2007 Country USA Weight 13.4 tonnes (14.8 tons) Engine MaxxForce D9.316 diesel, 330hp Main armament Varies

Objective Gunner Protection Kit manned turret

Navistar International manufactured a range of MaxxPro MRAPS for US forces in Afghanistan and Iraq. They are the most widely used MRAP design with over 7,000 built to date. Although the MaxxPro affords its crew of seven excellent protection, concerns have been raised about its poor offroad performance and its tendency to roll over.

Bar armour

 M-ATV Date 2009 Country USA Weight 14.6 tonnes (16.1 tons) Engine Caterpillar C7 diesel, 370hp Main armament Varies

Electronic minedetection system

Each wheel functions independently

r Foxhound Date 2012 Country UK Weight 7.5 tonnes (8.3 tons) Engine Steyr-Daimler-Puch M160036-A diesel, 214hp Main armament Varies

Designed as a replacement for Snatch, the Foxhound provides unmatched manoeuvrability and blast protection. It achieves this by using advanced composite materials instead of metal in many areas, which reduces weight. It carries a crew of six.

Concerns over the poor off-road manoeuvrability of MRAPs, especially in Afghanistan, led to the development of the M-ATV. This vehicle has the blast and armour protection of larger MRAPs, but is far more mobile, using the chassis of the USMC standard issue truck.

2 0 4 . P O S T- C O L D W A R

Buffel Named after the Afrikaans word for “buffalo”, the Buffel was the first purpose-built mine protected Armoured Personnel Carrier. It was built in South Africa during the South African Border War, a series of conflicts that took place in South West Africa (now Namibia), Angola, and Zambia from 1966 to 1990.

WHILE MANY VEHICLES had used V- or boat-shaped hulls to deflect mine blasts away from their undersides – for example, the Saracen APC (see p.180) – the Buffel was the first vehicle to have the survivability of the driver and mounted infantry as the priority in the design brief. Its design led to the Mine Resistant Ambush Protected concept (MRAP) in the 2000s, which resulted in tens of thousands of vehicles being built for use in Iraq and Afghanistan. The Buffel was a development of the earlier Bosvark vehicle – a Mercedes Benz Unimog truck modifed with a basic level of mine protection. The Buffel took the design further using the same Mercedes Benz U416-162 Unimog chassis, but with a driver’s REAR VIEW position set high off the ground behind the front axle, and with bulletproof windows to the front and sides. The open-topped rear troop compartment could carry ten infantrymen, each with a four-point seat belt harness, back to back. Entry to the vehicle was over the sides of the compartment, which were hinged to allow the armour to be dropped down. SPECIFICATIONS Name

Buffel Armoured Personnel Carrier

Date

1978

Origin

South Africa

Production

Approx 2,400

Engine

Mercedes-Benz OM-352 diesel, 125hp

Weight

6.1 tonnes (6.7 tons)

Main armament

None

Secondary armament

None

Crew

1 + 10

Armour thickness

Hull: unknown; windscreen: 40mm (1.6in) armoured glass

Infantry seats

Driver

Engine

Armoured windscreen

Spare tyre

Mercedes 6-cylinder water-cooled diesel engine

Hull set high off the ground THREE-QUARTER VIEW

Optimized for its environment Designed for long-range patrolling in the harsh climate of southern Africa, the Buffel included a 100 litre drinking water tank, accessed from a tap under the rear hull. The Buffel provided good visibility to the infantry being carried in the rear compartment, as well as high levels of protection from mines.

Deploying from the Buffel This poster shows infantrymen disembarking from the Buffel, and also illustrates an armoured side panel in the lowered position. The badges belong to some of the South African Defence Force units that used the vehicle.

2 0 6 . P O S T- C O L D W A R

EXTERIOR

The Buffel was a relatively simple vehicle based on the running gear of the very successful Unimog truck, 12,000 of which were bought by the South African Defence Forces for a variety of roles. As well as blast protection from mines, its hull shielded passengers from small arms fire. The Buffel was also produced in variants with closed infantry compartments and windows. 1. Headlight grill 2. Front tow point 3. Cab nose flap, open 4. Bulletproof glass windscreen 5. Winch for raising items, including tyres. 6. Main engine 7. Main engine detail 8. Main chassis frame 9. Access steps 10. Suspension arms 11. Vertical spring suspension 12. 12.50 x 20 tyres, often filled with water to absorb blasts 13. Drinking water tap 14. Rear light 15. Rear tow hook 1

BUFFEL . 207 8

INTERIOR The South African experience in counter-insurgency warfare led to a number of countries studying their tactics and equipment. The Buffel was sold to Sri Lanka, but more importantly, its novel design characteristics were emulated in later MRAP vehicles.

16. Looking down into driver’s compartment 17. Driver’s seat 18. Instrument panel 19. Warning indicator lights 20. Driver’s panel switches 21. Gear and direction levers 22. Choke lever 23. Hand and foot holds with bolt to release side panel 24. Safety harness 25. Infantry seats

The logistics of tank deployment The movement of tanks can be divided into three categories; strategic, operational and tactical, or battlefield. At the strategic level, there is the movement of tanks from barracks or stores to the area of operations, which can mean transportation to a different continent. Two Abrams tanks, for example, can be transported in a C5 Galaxy aircraft, but the usual way is by road transporter or by rail to a port and a roll-on roll-off ship. Indeed, the use of railways to move tanks has had a considerable influence on tank design. In Europe, the Berne International Load Gauge deemed that a maximum width of 3.5m (111⁄2ft) could safely be carried on most European railways – but in Britain, the rail loading gauge was narrower at 2.67m (83⁄4ft).

At the operational level, i.e. in areas where combat may occur, problems may include road and bridge restrictions, the risk of damage to urban areas, and the distance a tank may have to drive – the greater the distance, the greater both the fuel requirement and the likelihood of breakdown. On the battlefield, the immediate ground will influence a tank’s mobility, and may limit the way it can operate. Speed may help a tank become a harder target to hit – or thicker armour may make it less vulnerable – and so it can choose its route across a battlefield with impunity. M1A2 Abrams tanks and M2A3 Bradley IFVs arrive at Busan in South Korea from Texas to boost South Korean defences in February 2014.

2 1 0 . P O S T- C O L D W A R

Tracked Troop Carriers The end of the Cold War slowed down the development of Infantry Fighting Vehicles (IFVs), and many countries focused on counterinsurgency operations during the first decade of the 21st century. This meant that Cold War vehicles had to continue service for longer than planned, although several replacement designs have entered production since 2010. The development of IFVs did continue in other countries, particularly in those facing an active conventional threat, such as Israel and South Korea.

 CV90 Date 1993 Country Sweden Weight 22.8 tonnes (25.1 tons) Engine Scania DI 14 diesel, 550hp Main armament 40mm Bofors L/70 cannon

The CV90 (or Stridsfordon 90) was developed during the late 1980s and had a capacity of 6–8 infantrymen. Its variants include command, anti-aircraft, and forward observation and recovery vehicles. The versions armed with 30mm or 35mm cannon have been exported, primarily to Nordic countries. Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish vehicles have seen combat in Afghanistan.

40mm Bofors cannon

30mm cannon

l ASCOD Infantry Fighting Vehicle Date 1996 Country Austria/Spain Weight 30 tonnes (33 tons) Engine MTU 8V-199-TE20 diesel, 720hp Main armament 30mm MK30-2 cannon

Named ASCOD, for Austrian Spanish Cooperation Development, the Spanish version is called Pizarro and the Austrian (shown here) is named Ulan. Both have the same main armament, suspension, and a capacity for eight infantry. However, they use different engines, fire control systems, and armour configurations. Almost 400 have been built in total, including variants.

25mm cannon

Grousers on hull

r Dardo Date 2002 Country Italy Weight 23 tonnes (25.3 tons) Engine Iveco 8260 diesel, 520hp Main armament 25mm Oerlikon KBA cannon

The Italian Army ordered 200 Dardos to replace their M113 derived VCC-1 Armoured Personnel Carriers (APCs). The Dardo can be armed with TOW or Spike anti-tank missiles. It can carry six infantry, who have firing ports in the sides and rear ramp. The vehicle has been deployed with Italian forces in Iraq, Afghanistan, and Lebanon.

TRACKED TROOP CARRIERS . 211

Smoke grenade dischargers

d Namer Date 2008 Country Israel Weight 62 tonnes (68.3 tons) Engine Continental AVDS-1790 diesel, 1,200hp Main armament .50 Browning M2 machine-gun

Israeli experience of urban warfare demonstrated the vulnerability of the M113 APC, so several replacements based on existing chassis were developed. The Namer uses the highly mobile Merkava 4 chassis, fitted with even heavier armour. To enhance protection against Anti-Tank Guided Missiles (ATGMs) it is now fitted with the Trophy APS (see pp.221).

Remote-controlled machine-gun

u BvS 10 Viking Date 2004 Country Sweden Weight 11.3 tonnes (12.4 tons) Engine Cummins ISBe250 30 diesel, 275hp Main armament 7.62mm L7 machine-gun

Developed for the British Royal Marines, the Viking is a lightly armoured vehicle developed from the smaller, unarmoured Bv206. It runs on rubber tracks and is steered by hydraulic rams between the two cabs, giving it excellent mobility, even over sand and snow. Operations in Afghanistan saw the vehicle fitted with extra armour.

Merkava 4 chassis

Unmanned turret with 30mm cannon

l Schützenpanzer Puma Date 2010 Country Germany Weight 43 tonnes (47.4 tons) Engine MTU MT 892 Ka-501 diesel, 1,090hp Main armament 30mm MK30-2/ABM cannon The replacement for the venerable Marder, the Puma uses an unmanned turret, keeping all three crew and six infantry together in the hull. Modular armour can be added or removed to match a threat level, or to reduce its weight to 31 tonnes (34.2 tons) for air transport.

d Ajax Date 2016 Country UK

Smoke grenade dischargers

Weight 38 tonnes (41.9 tons) Engine MTU 199 diesel, 800hp Main armament 40mm CTAI CT40 cannon

Camouflage covering

u BMD-4M Airborne Assault Vehicle Date 2014 Country Russia Weight 14 tonnes (15.5 tons) Engine UTD-29 multifuel, 500hp Main armament 1 x 100mm 2A70 smoothbore gun, 1 x 30mm 2A72 cannon Based on the BMD-3 hull, the original BMD-4 entered service with the Russian Airborne Troops (VDV) in 2004, although just 60 were delivered. The improved BMD-4M uses the engine and other automotive components from the BMP-3 to ease costs, logistics, and maintenance. An APC variant, the BMD-MDM, has also been introduced.

An Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition, and Reconnaissance (ISTAR) vehicle developed for the British Army, the Ajax adopts its basic design from the ASCOD. The vehicle has a digital electronic architecture that enables it to share information with friendly forces. A number of variants are planned, including specialist personnel carrier, engineer reconnaissance, repair, recovery, and command.

2 1 2 . P O S T- C O L D W A R

Wheeled Troop Carriers Wheeled personnel carriers have become popular since the end of the Cold War, especially 8x8 vehicles. Automotive developments have given them cross-country mobility similar to tracked vehicles, and wheels remain more reliable and durable than tracks. The ability of wheeled vehicles to self-deploy over long distances, without needing transport, was demonstrated in Mali in 2013. Wheeled vehicles also have a greater resistance to mines and IEDs – most modern 8x8s can be driven even with multiple destroyed wheels.

u ASLAV Date 1992 Country Australia Weight 13.4 tonnes (14.8 tons) Engine Detroit Diesel 6V53T diesel, 275hp

d XA-185 Date 1994 Country Finland

Main armament 25mm M242 cannon

Weight 13.5 tonnes (14.9 tons)

Based on the USMC LAV-25 and the Canadian Bison, a total of 257 ASLAV vehicles were purchased in two configurations. The non-turreted personnel carrier hull can be converted to command, surveillance, or ambulance using removable kits. The ASLAV has seen service in Iraq and Afghanistan.

Engine Valmet 612 DWI diesel, 246hp Main armament 12.7mm NSV machine-gun

Bullet-resistant front windows

The first XA series vehicle, the XA-180 was introduced in 1984. The XA-185 had a more powerful engine. Further upgrades led to the XA-186, XA-188, and the larger XA-203, which were no longer amphibious. XA vehicles have been sold to Finland, Norway, Sweden, Estonia, and the Netherlands. Besides peacekeeping missions, the XA-185 has been used in Afghanistan.

u Type 96 Date 1995 Country Japan Weight 14.5 tonnes (16 tons) Engine Komatsu diesel, 360hp Main armament .50 Browning M2 machine gun The Type 96 has a two-man crew and space for eight infantrymen, who get in and out using a rear ramp or five roof hatches. It has two firing ports on each side. Although never exported, the Type 96 was used by the Japanese Iraq Reconstruction and Support Group between 2004 and 2006.

Propeller for propulsion in water

6x6 drive capability

u Pandur I

r Piranha III

Date 1995 Country Austria

Date 1998 Country Switzerland

Weight 13.5 tonnes (14.9 tons)

Weight 22 tonnes (24.3 tons)

Engine Steyr WD 612.95 diesel, 260hp

Engine Caterpillar C9 diesel, 400hp

Main armament .50 Browning M2 machine-gun

Main armament Varies

The 6x6 Pandur I is used by Austria, Slovenia, Kuwait, and Belgium. Some were also supplied to the US Special Operations Command. The Belgian vehicles are used for reconnaissance, and some Kuwaiti vehicles are armed with a 90mm gun. The upgraded Pandur II, in 8x8 configuration, was made available from 2005.

The Piranha III has been sold to more than 12 countries, with variants ranging from standard Armoured Personnel Carrier (APC) to electronic warfare and assault gun. The Canadian variant, LAV-III, is used by Canada and New Zealand, and forms the basis of the US Army’s Stryker family.

213

Wingmirror

r Fennek Date 2003 Country Germany, Netherlands Weight 12.2 tonnes (13.4 tons) Engine Deutz diesel, 240hp Main armament 40mm Heckler and Koch GMG Automatic Grenade Launcher Most of the 612 German and Dutch Fenneks are used for reconnaissance. For this role, it carries a sensor pod on a 1.5m (4.9ft) mast that can also be operated away from the vehicle. It has a three-man crew. Other variants include joint-fire-support for calling artillery and air strikes, surface-to-air-missile, and anti-tank vehicles.

Headlamp

Interior air protected against nuclear, biological, and chemical attack

4x2 or 4x4 drive capability

l Puma Date 2003 Country Italy Weight 8.4 tonnes (9.3 tons) Engine Iveco Type 8042 TCA diesel, 180hp Main armament .50 Browning M2 machine-gun

The Puma was developed in the 1990s. Out of 560 built, 380 were a 6x6 variant that could carry six infantrymen. The 4x4 variant is used by reconnaissance units and carries four scouts. Both have doors at the rear and on the sides. Up-armoured vehicles were deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan.

Lightweight hull design Radio antenna

8x8 drive with hydropneumatic suspension

2 1 4 . P O S T- C O L D W A R

Wheeled Troop Carriers (cont.) Many 21st-century designs can carry a range of different weapons, from machine-guns fitted in remote weapon stations to turrets armed with cannon that are usually found on Infantry Fighting Vehicles. Such options have made these wheeled APCs even more popular. However, such improvements in firepower and protection has led to significant increase in their height and weight, with some vehicles approaching 30 tonnes (33 tons). This makes them more prominent targets and harder to move by air. Modular design allows different turrets to be mounted

u Eagle IV

The Eagle I, II, and III were based on the HMMWV chassis, whereas the Eagle IV and V use the DURO III truck as its basis, giving it a larger payload. The vehicle is used for reconnaissance, patrol, command, and as an ambulance. More than 750 Eagle IV and Vs have been built for Denmark, Germany, and Switzerland.

Date 2003 Country Switzerland Weight 7 tonnes (7.7 tons) Engine Cummins ISB 6.7 E3 diesel, 245hp Main armament Varies

Hydraulic suspension on each wheel 25mm GIAT M811 cannon

 Patria AMV Date 2004 Country Finland Weight 22 tonnes (24.3 tons) Engine Scania DC13 diesel, 483hp Main armament .50 Browning M2 machine-gun

Remote weapons station

The Patria AMV is available with a wide variety of engines, transmissions, weapons stations, and role-specific equipment. Depending on the turret fitted, up to 10 infantrymen can be carried. More than 1,500 AMVs have been sold to seven countries. Poland has the largest fleet and has deployed the Rosomak, as they named it, to Afghanistan.

Smoke dischargers

 ATF Dingo 2 Date 2005 Country Germany Weight 12.5 tonnes (13.8 tons)

r VBCI

Engine Mercedes-Benz OM 924 LA diesel, 222hp

Date 2008 Country France Weight 29 tonnes (31.9 tons)

Main armament Varies

Engine Volvo diesel, 550hp

The Dingo is based on the Unimog truck chassis, fitted with an armoured hull and underbody mine protection. It has an eight-man crew. Six countries operate the Dingo 2 in roles such as NBC reconnaissance, medical evacuation, patrol, and battlefield surveillance. It has been deployed in the Balkans, Lebanon, and Afghanistan.

Main armament 25mm GIAT M811 cannon Unusually for a wheeled vehicle, the VBCI was designed for use as an IFV rather than an APC. It has a three-man crew and carries up to nine infantrymen. France operates 630, of which 110 are command posts. The VBCI has been deployed in Lebanon, Afghanistan, and Mali, where its stabilized cannon proved highly effective.

Crew compartment

W H E E L E D T R O O P C A R R I E R S ( C O N T. ) . 2 1 5

l Boxer Date 2009 Country Germany, Netherlands Weight 35.6 tonnes (39.2 tons) Engine MTU 8V 199 TE20 diesel, 721hp Main armament Varies

The Boxer is in service with Germany, the Netherlands, and Lithuania. It is composed of a standard chassis and removable mission modules, including ambulance, command, engineer, and cargo. The crew seats are designed to reduce the shock of mine blasts.

25mm Oerlikon KBA cannon

AMAP composite armour

Smoke dischargers

Welded steel and ceramic armour

Room for nine-man combat team

 Freccia

Developed from the Centauro tank destroyer, the Freccia can carry eight infantrymen. Variants in service include a mortar carrier, command post, recovery, and ambulance, as well as an IFV fitted with a Spike anti-tank missile launcher. The Freccia was deployed in Afghanistan in 2010.

Date 2009 Country Italy Weight 30 tonnes (33 tons) Engine Iveco 8262 diesel, 550hp Main armament 25mm Oerlikon KBA cannon

7.62 mm machine gun

40mm automatic grenade launcher

 Terrex ICV Date 2009 Country Singapore Weight 26 tonnes (28.7 tons) Engine Caterpillar C-9 diesel, 450hp

8x8 drive capability

Main armament 1 x 40mm Automatic Grenade launcher, 1 x 7.62mm machine-gun

Classified armor plating

Fully amphibious, the Terrex can carry 11 infantrymen. As well as the main armament, there are two rear-mounted machine-guns. Cameras provide the crew with a 360-degree view around the vehicle. It is fully integrated into Singapore's battlefield management and command and control systems.

Tracks on the ground The movement of US Army M1A2 Abrams tanks such as this to an allied nation such as South Korea is an overt way of one country showing military and political support for another.

SHOW OF STRENGTH While the tank has obvious tactical capabilities – as can be seen by the firing of its powerful 120mm gun – the movement of such tanks is also a classic symbol of power projection in world politics, as well as being a source of reassurance to the allied or friendly nation. Despite the fact that many other more powerful, advanced, or expensive

military assets may have also been deployed for a joint exercise such as this, it is often the tanks that will be photographed and featured in the media coverage of the events. The tank is such a distinctive, large, and powerful weapon – or is seen as such by the general public – that it is often the symbolic piece of military equipment most seen to represent a nation’s military supremacy and geopolitical strength.

An M1A2 Abrams fires on a range at Pocheon, South Korea, during a joint South Korean and US Army exercise in 2011.

2 1 8 . P O S T- C O L D W A R

Post-Cold War Tanks The end of the Cold War slowed down the development of tanks, but by no means ended it. Former adversaries reduced the size of their militaries, selling or scrapping many vehicles as such large armies were no longer needed. Many vehicles that were under development during the late 1980s were brought into service slowly and in small numbers. On the other hand, some existing tanks continued to receive upgrades, such as the introduction of the L/55 120mm gun mounted on the German Leopard 2A6.

u M1A2 Abrams

Introduced in 1985, the M1A1 had a more effective 120mm gun than the M1 and an improved suspension and transmission, while the M1A2 added a Commander’s Weight 63 tonnes (69.4 tons) Independent Thermal Viewer (CITV), enabling the Engine Textron Lycoming AGT1500 commander to look in a different direction to the gunner. gas turbine, 1,500hp Experience in the Gulf has also led to enhancements, Main armament 120mm M256 L/44 smoothbore gun especially to the electronics and computer systems. Date 1992 Country USA

120mm L/52 smoothbore gun

d Type 90 Date 1991 Country Japan Weight 50 tonnes (55.1 tons) Engine Mitsubishi 10ZG diesel, 1,500hp Main armament 120mm L/44 smoothbore gun With the exception of the main gun, all the components of the Type 90 were designed and built in Japan. The tank features an autoloader, reducing the crew to three men. Due to Japan’s difficult mountainous and urban terrain, most of the 341 Type 90s are deployed in Hokkaido, where their size and weight is less restrictive.

u Leclerc Date 1992 Country France Weight 56.5 tonnes (62.3 tons) Engine Wartsila V8X T9 diesel, 1,500hp Main armament 120mm CN120-26 L/52 smoothbore gun

Armoured skirt

120mm rifled main gun

 Challenger 2 Date 1994 Country UK Weight 74.9 tonnes (82.5 tons) Engine Perkins CV12 V12 diesel, 1,200hp Main armament 120mm L30A1 L/55 rifled gun Despite the name, only five per cent of Challenger 2 parts are compatible with the Challenger 1. The British ordered 386, while Oman uses 38. Fitted with add-on armour, this tank took part in the invasion of Iraq in 2003. It features level 2I Dorchester armour modules on the hull and turret sides, electronic countermeasures, and heat and radar absorbent Solar Shield camouflage.

Solar Shield camouflage covers entire tank

Thermal Imaging and Gunnery sight aperture

The Leclerc replaced the much lighter AMX-30. A total of 406 were built for France and 388 for the United Arab Emirates (UAE). An autoloader has reduced its crew to three. The electronics and armour have been steadily improved across production batches. French Leclercs have been used for peacekeeping in Kosovo and Lebanon, and the UAE's tanks have seen service in Yemen.

219

125mm main gun Aerial mount

 T-90S Date 1994 Country Russia Weight 48.6 tonnes (53.5 tons) Engine ChTZ V92S2 V12 diesel, 1,000hp Main armament 125mm 2A46M5 L/48 smoothbore gun Originally named the T-72BU, the T-90 was intended to replace earlier Soviet tanks. All of its onboard systems were upgraded, incorporating features from the T-80, and the Shtora Active Protection system (APS) was integrated. Of the seven users, the largest operator is India with 1,250 T-90s, followed by Russia with around 550 tanks. The T-90 has seen combat in Ukraine and Syria.

Idler wheel

r Ariete Date 1995 Country Italy Weight 54 tonnes (59.5 tons) Engine Iveco MTCA V12 diesel, 1,275hp Main armament 120mm OTO Melara L/44 smoothbore gun

7.62mm machine-gun

Fume extractor

The Ariete was designed during the Cold War to replace Italy’s fleet of M60s and Leopard 1s and 200 tanks were delivered to Italian forces between 1995 and 2002. It is fitted with a laser warning receiver for protection against missiles. The Ariete was used in Iraq during 2004, where extra armour was added to the turret and hull sides.

Explosive Reactive Armour (ERA) Independent suspension system 125mm smoothbore gun

Smoke grenade dischargers

l PT 91 Twardy Date 1995 Country Poland Weight 45.9 tonnes (50.6 tons) Engine PZL-Wola Type S12U multifuel, 850hp Main armament 125mm D81TM smoothbore gun

Stowage bin

An upgrade of the T-72M, the Twardy has additional Explosive Reactive Armour (ERA), more effective gun stabilization, and a more powerful engine and transmission. Poland bought 233, along with armoured recovery and engineering variants. Malaysia ordered 48, and India bought over 550 of the recovery variants.

Exhaust under cover

d Type 96

Shocked at the effectiveness of M1A1 Abrams and Challengers in the Gulf War of 1991, China began upgrading its tanks to counter them. Weight 42.8 tonnes (47.2 tons) After a series of development vehicles, the Engine Norinco diesel, Type 96 was adopted. It was the first Chinese 780hp tank to use modular armour that can quickly be Main armament 125mm L/48 replaced. The gun has an autoloader. The more smoothbore gun advanced Type 96B was first seen in 2016. Date 1996 Country China

Drive sprocket

2 2 0 . P O S T- C O L D W A R

Post-Cold War Tanks (cont.) Conflicts since 1989 have shown that tanks still have a role on the battlefield. Although heavy and difficult to deploy, when needed they offer unmatched protection and all-weather, long-range surveillance, along with accurate firepower. Tanks have been used for peacekeeping operations in the Balkans and Lebanon, as well as for counter-insurgency in Iraq and Afghanistan, and conventional fighting in Syria, Yemen, and Ukraine. During the 21st century, a number of new vehicles have begun to enter service, some with countries that are new to tank design.

u Type 99 Date 2001 Country China Weight 50 tonnes (55.1 tons) Engine WD396 V8 diesel, 1,200hp Main armament 125mm ZPT-98 smoothbore gun

Spaced armour at front of turret

Smoke grenade dischargers

u Leopard 2A6 Date 2001 Country Germany Weight 62.4 tonnes (68.8 tons) Engine MTU MB 873 Ka-501 diesel, 1,500hp Main armament 120mm Rheinmetall 120 L/55 smoothbore gun

r Al-Khalid Date 2001 Country Pakistan/China Weight 48 tonnes (52.9 tons) Engine KMDB 6TD-2 multifuel, 1,200hp Main armament 125mm smoothbore gun

Along with the Type 96, the Type 99 forms the backbone of the Chinese Army’s tank fleet. Protected by advanced ERA and a laser warning system, it uses more modern thermal sights, gun stabilization, and has hunter-killer capability. The Type 99A and Type 99A2 have recieved further upgrades.

A significant upgrade to the 2A4 from the Cold War era, the 2A6 incorporates distinctive wedge-shaped spaced armour on the turret and the more powerful L/55 gun. The gunner’s sight has moved to the turret roof, and the turret is now electrically powered rather than being hydraulically driven.

A collaboration between Pakistan and China, the Al-Khalid, or the MBT-2000, was the most advanced part of a Pakistani project to upgrade its tank fleet. It has a three-man crew, ERA, and a laser-warning system. As of 2016, upgrades to this tank are under development.

12.7mm anti-aircraft machine-gun

Composite armour

One of two machine-guns

r Merkava Mark 4 Date 2004 Country Israel Weight 65 tonnes (71.1 tons) Engine MTU 883 V12 diesel , 1,500hp Main armament 120mm IMI MG253 L/44 smoothbore gun The latest in the Merkava line, the Mark 4 retains the unique front-mounted engine and rear-access door. Features like automatic fire protection, Nuclear Biological Chemical (NBC) system, and Trophy Active Protection System emphasize crew protection. Electronic systems such as Automatic Target Tracking and a Battle Management System make the tank even more effective. It has seen combat in Lebanon and Gaza.

Engine mounted at front of tank Space for four crew and six infantry

120mm main gun

12.7mm machine-gun

r Type 10 Date 2012 Country Japan Weight 44 tonnes (48.5 tons) Engine Mitsubishi V8 diesel, 1,200hp Main armament 120mm Japan Steelworks L/44 smoothbore gun The latest Japanese tank, the Type 10 features upgradable modular armour as well as a computerized network for sharing information, an active suspension that can raise or lower the height of the vehicle, and a transmission that enables the same speed forwards and backwards.

Armoured skirt protects wheels Bar armour protects engine and drive sprocket

l T-14 Armata Date 2015 Country Russia Weight Unknown Engine ChTZ 12N360 V12 diesel, 1,500+hp Main armament 125mm 2A82-1M smoothbore gun The T-14 represents a break from the previous Soviet and Russian tank designs. It is much longer and taller, and the three-man crew are all seated in the front of the hull. The unmanned turret contains the gun and autoloader. The turret also contains the sights and both a hard-and a soft-kill APS.

Tracks with rubber pads

Russian insignia

125mm smoothbore main gun

120mm main gun

r Altay Date 2016 Country Turkey Weight 65 tonnes (71.7 tons) Engine MTU MT 883 Ka-501 diesel, 1,500hp Main armament 120mm L/55 smoothbore gun Turkey has upgraded its M60 and Leopard tanks, but the Altay represents a significant step forwards as a new design. Most components are being developed by Turkish companies,including the advanced fire control system and sights. It has a four-man crew. A total of 1,000 vehicles are planned.

2 2 2 . P O S T- C O L D W A R

M1A2 Abrams The American Abrams has been made in large numbers (some 11,000) and now equips seven national armies. Nevertheless, it has been subject to the West’s ambivalent attitude to tanks – the dilemma of potentially needing them and seeing others still developing them versus the pressure on factory capacity amidst tightening military budgets.

THE ABRAMS WAS DESIGNED as a replacement for the M60 at a time when Soviet bloc tanks were considered the most likely enemy. The first model was fitted with a version of the L7 105mm gun from the UK, separate ammunition storage in a blow-out compartment to protect the crew, and a gas turbine engine that was small and incredibly powerful but twice as thirsty as an equivalent diesel engine. During a visit to the UK in 1973, an American team were shown the latest developments in Chobham armour, and this led to a redesign of the tank to incorporate the new protection system. Later, a new version of the laminate armour incorporating depleted uranium was fitted to the M1A1 model of the tank, doubling protection levels. The M1A1 was also fitted with the 120mm German smoothbore gun, which gave it a tremendous advantage in the 1991 Gulf War. Further upgrades, such as a new Fire Control System, Commander’s Independent Thermal Viewer, and improved digital systems, led to the M1A2 model. City fighting in the Iraq War led to the development of the Tank Urban Survival Kit (TUSK) in 2006. These were fitted to tanks in theatre to improve protection in built-up areas. Time and again the Abrams has proved itself in battle, and it will undoubtedly continue to be a potent weapon for decades to come. SPECIFICATIONS Name

M1A2 Abrams

Date

1992

Origin

USA

Production

Approx 1,500

Engine

Textron Lycoming AGT1500 gas turbine, 1,500hp

Weight

63 tonnes (69.4 tons)

Main armament

120mm M256 smoothbore

Secondary armament

.50 Browning M2HB, 2 x 7.62mm M240 MGs

Crew

Armour thickness

Unknown

Engine

Loader

Commander Gunner

Driver

REAR VIEW

M1A2 ABRAMS . 223

Depleted uranium armour on front of turret

Commander’s cupola Engine compartment at rear

Armoured skirt

Rubber pads on tracks

THREE-QUARTER VIEW

Tank badge The badge of the US Army Maneuver Center of Excellence based at Fort Benning, Georgia. The center unites the Infantry School and Armour School under one command. The full colour badge replaces the black with blue, yellow, and red segments, the traditional colours of the Infantry, Cavalry, and Artillery.

Mobile powerhouse The latest version of the Abrams is the M1A2 SEPv2 (System Enhancement Package). This has added an Auxiliary Power Unit, a Thermal Management System, and upgrades to electronic systems such as communications, display screens, and sights.

2 24 . P O S T- C O L D W A R

EXTERIOR

The M1A2 is one of the heaviest main battle tanks in the world – partly due to its formidable composite armour, which has been further improved by the addition of depleted uranium mesh to the front of the hull and turret. This extraordinary armour offers protection against all known anti-tank weapons. 1. Towing eye 2. Road wheel hub 3. Road wheels and track 4. Track with rubber pads 5. Commander’s (left) and loader’s hatches 6. Commander’s cupola 7. Loader’s 7.62mm M240 machine-gun 8. Common Remotely Operated Weapons Station sights 9. Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical protection system vent 10. Vapour Compression System Unit, part of the Thermal Management System 11. Infantry phone 12. Drive sprocket 1

M1A2 ABRAMS . 225 13

INTERIOR The M1A2’s interior is lined with Kevlar, which protects the crew against spalling (splinters caused by the explosion of enemy projectiles). Ammunition is kept in armoured compartments, which feature blow-out panels. These minimize the damage caused by ammunition “cooking off” in the heat of an explosion by ensuring the force of the blast is directed away from the crew compartment.

13. Commander’s station, looking right 14. Driver’s station, looking forwards 15. Driver’s steering and throttle T-bar control 16. Gunner’s station 17. Gunner’s Primary Sight eyepiece 18. Mounting for co-axial 7.62 machine-gun (not fitted) 19. Gunner’s control handles 20. Top of main gun breech (closed) 21. Loader’s station, looking left 22. Main gun breech (closed), showing case deflector tray 23. Bottom of main gun breech (open)

2 2 6 . P O S T- C O L D W A R

The BAE stand at the Farnborough International Airshow, UK, 2010

Key manufacturers

BAE Systems BAE Systems is one of the world’s largest defence contractors. It produces virtually everything military, from aircraft carriers and nuclear submarines to rifles and ammunition. One of its core activities is the manufacture of armoured vehicles.

BRITISH AEROSPACE, CREATED IN 1977, was a government-owned conglomerate of aircraft manufacturers whose component companies had a history stretching back to World War I. Denationalized from 1981, it soon began to expand, acquiring the Royal Ordnance Factories – producers of a wide variety of armaments and munitions, and every Main Battle Tank in service with the British Army since World War II – in 1987. Vehicle manufacturers The Rover Group were acquired in 1988, and finally, after radical restructuring, BA merged with Marconi Electronic Systems in 1999 to form BAE Systems. MES was itself a conglomerate, with naval shipyards as well as a first-rate electronics capability. However, other than ROF, BAE had no interest in military vehicle production. That shortcoming was soon rectified, however, for in 2004 it outbid General Dynamics for Alvis Vickers, by then the UK’s most important armoured vehicle builder. Since 1919, Alvis had been a low-volume producer of motorcars. It became involved in building armoured cars as early as 1937, and continued down that path after World War II, developing the six-wheeled FV600 series, which included the Saracen APC and Saladin armoured car, adopted by the British Army in 1958. Briefly part of The Rover Group, and later British Leyland, the company changed hands again in 1981 to become part of United Scientific Holdings, which

manufactured gun-sights. USH adopted the name Alvis in 1995. In 1997 it acquired Swedish competitor Hägglunds, and in the following year GKN Sankey, which was then supplying the British Army with its FV500series tracked Infantry Fighting Vehicles (the Warrior and variants), which operated alongside Alvis’ own lighter, aluminium-hulled FV100 family, the most successful member of which was FV101 Scorpion. In 2002, Alvis became Alvis Vickers on acquiring Vickers Defence Systems, which had a history of tank production stretching back to 1920, and was then producing Challenger 2, the British Army’s Main Battle Tank. Two years later, BAE acquired Alvis Vickers and merged it with ROF to create BAE Land Systems. At a stroke, BAE became the UK’s only significant player, and soon strengthened its position in the US by acquiring United Defense Industries in 2005, and Armor Holdings two years later. UDI was an important supplier to the US military, boasting the M2/M3 Bradley Fighting Vehicles, M88 Hercules Armored Recovery Vehicle, and M109 Paladin self-propelled howitzer, as well as arguably the most widely-used Armoured Personnel Carrier in the world, the M113. Armor, for its part, had taken over development of the Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles, based on a design by Steyr of Austria, just prior to its acquisition by BAE. The only fully protected member of the family was the Caiman MRAP (MineResistant, Ambush-Protected) APC, which the US Army

Bradley under construction A Bradley Fighting Vehicle (BFV) turret awaits installation on the assembly line at the BAE Plc Land & Armaments facility in York, Pennsylvania, US.

Terrier armoured digger Weighing in at 30 tonnes (33 tons), the Terrier was much more capable than the British Army’s previous Combat Engineer Tractor, and could be operated remotely if needed.

operated alongside the Marine Corps’ Cougars, but others were fitted with armoured cabs. Land Systems Hägglunds AB was to produce the Combat Vehicle 90 (Stridsfordon 90) family of tracked IFVs. As well as the original 40mm Bofors cannon, versions armed with 30mm and 35mm Bushmaster

BAE SYSTEMS . 227

“ The FIN round rent the air as it tore across the battlefield” CAPTAIN TIM PURBRICK, TROOP COMMANDER, QUEEN’S ROYAL IRISH HUSSARS BATTLEGROUP

Hybrid Electric Drive Transmission In 2012 BAE unveiled designs for a new Ground Combat Vehicle to replace the Bradley Fighting Vehicle. It featured the first ever hybrid electric tank engine.

chain guns were sold. Other armament options, including 105mm rifled and 120mm smoothbore guns and a turretless APC variant, were also developed. A vehicle fitted with BAE’s infrared camouflage system, Adaptiv, has been demonstrated. The camouflage is made of individual thermoelectric plates that can combine to replicate the overall heat signature of a variety of everyday objects. Another Hägglunds product, the BvS10 Armoured All-Terrain Vehicle, was adopted by Austria, Britain, France, the Netherlands, and

Sweden. Hägglunds also produced an improved version of the German Leopard 2 MBT, a competitor in international markets for BAE’s own Challenger 2, which Vickers demonstrated in 1989 and which entered service with the British Army in 1994. Uniquely among NATO MBTs, Challenger 2 mounted a rifled cannon, the 120mm, 55-calibre L30A1, which could fire HESH (high-explosive squash-head) as well as APFSDS (Armour-Piercing Fin-Stabilizing Discarding-Sabot) rounds. It first saw combat in 2003, during the invasion of Iraq. Production of Challenger 2 ended in 2002. Since then, operational experience has led to the development of add-on armour kits incorporating improved “Dorchester” composite armour, and in the mid-2010s work began on a Life Extension Programme to

CV90 Armadillo BAE offered a range of CV90 Armadillo vehicles. This APC variant carried eight infantrymen and its weapons mount could accommodate machine guns, cannon, or grenade launchers.

allow it to remain in service beyond 2025. Alongside the MBT, BAE also produced an innovative armoured combat engineer vehicle known as the Terrier, which replaced the smaller, less-capable FV180 Combat Engineer Tractor. Manned by a crew of two, the Terrier mounted both a clamshell front bucket and a side-mounted articulated excavator arm. It had extensive protection against mines and IEDs, but could still be operated remotely from as far away as 1km (0.6 miles) in especially hazardous environments. CV9035 IFV CV90 could be armed with a range of weapons in its two-man turret. This version carries a 35mm Bushmaster III Chain Gun.

Army games The idea of tanks competing against each other started in World War I, with races over a simple course. Feeding the military desire to develop competition and excellence, a number of competitions went on to be established. Beginning in 1963, the Canadian Army Trophy (CAT) saw NATO forces compete to win a small silver trophy of a Centurion tank, which was awarded to the best tank team based on the accuracy of their gunnery. Over the years this competition developed, from tanks simply firing from static positions at static targets, to better reflect likely combat situations. Despite growing rivalry between competitors and high levels of expectation, in 1987 a team from the Royal Hussars in the British Army’s new Challenger tank failed miserably. However, ironically, the tank went on to see sterling service in the First Gulf War and still holds the record for the longest range, confirmed tank-ontank kill – firing an Armour-Piercing Fin Stabilized Discarding Sabot (APFSDS) round a distance of 4,700m (2.9 miles).

RUSSIAN TANK BIATHLON Russia started a biathlon event in 2013, in which tanks fire at targets as they race to complete a route in the fastest time. The route gets progressively harder and penalties are given if targets are missed or the obstacle course is not completed correctly. The value of the event for training or judging equipment may be questionable, but it certainly provides an amazing spectacle. A tank crew takes part in the individual race event of the 2016 Tank Biathlon, held at the Alabino training ground near Moscow.

230 . REFERENCE

Evolution of the Tank There were surprisingly few truly wrong turns taken along the

no less than five. There was some uncertainty as to what form

road to developing the heavy armoured fighting vehicle, and it

the main armament should take – some armies favoured light

followed a steady progression, incorporating innovations as and

vehicles armed with machine-guns – but by the time World

when they appeared, such as the rotating turret carrying the

War II was underway all had settled on the format we see most

main armament. The first vehicle to be equipped in this way was

commonly today (although some, like the French Char B1 and

the diminutive Renault FT-17, but from then on the arrangement

the American M3 Lee, retained multiple cannon), with a main

was virtually ubiquitous – although tanks with multiple turrets

gun capable of knocking out enemy vehicles, supplemented

appeared, too, like the Vickers A1E1 “Independent”, which had

by machine-guns to deal with softer targets.

Access hatch

Armoured mantlet fixed to gun tube

75mm gun

Driver’s viewing port

Mudguard

Drive sprocket

E VO LU T I O N O F T H E TA N K . 231

EARLY DESIGN: MARK IV Early British tanks featured an elongated lozenge shape designed to cross trenches, with the crew, tracks, engine, and armament all contained within the hull. Even as the first British Mark I tanks were going into action during the Somme campaign of 1916, an improved version, to be known as the Mark IV, was taking shape in the mind of Albert Stern, the real driving force behind British tank development. He was unable to change the engine, as he wished, but specified improved armour and ventilation, exchanged the strip-fed Hotchkiss machineguns for Lewis guns with larger-capacity pan magazines, reduced the size of the gun cupolas, and swapped the guns themselves for models with shorter barrels. He also moved the petrol tank outside the vehicle, between the tracks. Simultaneously, tacticians such as General Elles and Colonel Fuller were working on new ways of employing the tank. The revised vehicle’s first outings, on the Ypres salient, were imperfect, but at Cambrai, on November 20, 1917, the attack breached the German front line across a front 6 miles (9.7km) wide. Although the attack was ultimately unsuccessful, it established the basic principle of armoured warfare.

Air intakes

Chest containing tow-rope

Main hatch

Daimler engine

Observation turret

Steering levers

Brake pedals

Petrol tank

Worm reduction gear

Driver’s seat

Manning the Mark IV In addition to the commander and the driver, two men were required to engage and disengage the gearboxes, and thus steer the vehicle by means of its tracks. Two more manned the 6-pounder guns, and a further pair acted as loaders for the 6-pounders and also manned the sponson-mounted machine-guns.

CLASSIC DESIGN: M4A4 SHERMAN

Exhaust pipe

The M4A4 demonstrated the layout that would become the norm for tank design for decades – the main armament in a rotating turret, a rearmounted engine, and angled hull armour. One of the many sub-types of the M4, the M4A4, known to the British as the Sherman V, was characterized by its Chrysler A57 Multibank engine. A total of 7,499 were produced, and virtually all of them were operated by the British Army, many as Sherman VC Fireflies, with the 17-pounder gun fitted in place of the original 75mm and the machine-gunner’s position sacrificed to allow more ammunition to be stowed. In all, 49,234 M4 gun tanks weres produced (and many more chassis were completed in other forms, such as engineering vehicles); examples were still in service many years after the end of World War II.

Manning the M4 As designed, the M4 had a crew of five: the commander, the gunner, and the loader – located in the turret, with the commander directly below the access hatch, behind and raised above the others – and the driver and the machine-gunner in the bow of the vehicle, to port and starboard respectively.

Each track link has a guide

Water pump

232 . REFERENCE

Tank Engines The earliest tanks to see combat were powered by engines

to power many Allied tanks throughout World War II, but already

intended for large agricultural tractors (the British Mark I had a

there was a move towards purpose-built units. By the 1950s,

105hp Daimler-designed sleeve-valve six-cylinder of 15.9 litres,

most tanks were propelled by 12-cylinder petrol or diesel engines

which unfortunately belched smoke). Several interwar tanks

producing at least 750bhp, many of which were air-cooled, and

used aircraft engines, such as the American V-12 Liberty, which

that de facto standard continued, with power output constantly

powered the Mark VIII, BT-2, and BT-5, and early British Cruisers

being increased – even doubled – until well into the last quarter

including the A13, Crusader, and Centaur. Other types of aero-

of the 20th century, when gas turbines first appeared, notably

engines of various configurations, often down-rated, continued

in the American M1 Abrams and the Soviet T-80.

MAIN BATTLE TANKS By the end of the 20th century, Main Battle Tanks were weighing in at over 60 tonnes (66 tons), and engine design had evolved accordingly. The norm by then was for a power-to-weight ratio of around 25hp/tonne, up from around 4hp/tonne in World War I and 12–15hp/ tonne in World War II.

CHIEFTAIN Left radiator (raised)

Upper crankshaft cover

Coolant relief valve

Right coolant header tank

Tensioner pulley

Fan drive belt

Leyland L60 One initially promising innovation in engine design was the use of opposed pistons operating in a single cylinder – an arrangement that was satisfactory in two-stroke diesel/multifuel units like the 695bhp (later 750bhp) Leyland L60. As a tank engine, however, it was plagued by poor reliability, despite extensive revisions throughout its life.

Fan

Flywheel

TA N K E N G I N ES . 233

OTHER KEY ENGINES From the sheer variety of engine types employed in tanks down the years, it is clear that their designers were given a very free hand. Some stuck closely to existing principles and produced in-line units, others chose to employ radial powerplants originally intended for aircraft – and then there were

those who thought laterally, producing units like the Chrysler A57 Multibank, which could reasonably be described as a multiple-radial. Despite its unconventional character, it proved extremely reliable, although routine maintenance tasks on it, such as changing spark plugs, were rather difficult.

RICARDO 150HP

WRIGHT CONTINENTAL R-975 Induction valve

Block of three cylinders

Inlet valve Fan shroud Crankshaft

Exhaust pipe

Full load governor

Crankcase

Cylinder

Flywheel cover

Ribbing to maximise cooling effect Piston

Harry Ricardo, an extremely talented independent engine designer, was asked to solve the problem of the tell-tale smoke produced by the Daimler unit fitted to the first generation of British tanks. Instead of adapting the engine, he came up with a new design that produced significantly more power, and which was adopted for the Mark V tank.

KHARKIV V-2

MARK V TANK

In 1939, the US Army chose a version of the supercharged, air-cooled Wright R-975 radial engine to power a new generation of tanks, starting with the M2 Medium. Produced by Continental Motors, it later found its way into variants of the M3 Grant/Lee, M4 Shermans, and the M18 Hellcat tank destroyer.

CHRYSLER A57 MULTIBANK

Diesel injectors

M18 HELLCAT

Air inlet

Camshaft

Valves

Radiator shroud

Flywheel Exhaust Spark plug wiring harnesss

Piston

Cylinder Carburettor

Until the T-34 appeared, all Soviet tanks had petrol engines. The designer of the powerplant for the new tank stuck to the V-12 arrangement of the T-28, but switched to diesel fuel, and reduced the size and capacity (from 46.9 litres to 38.8 litres) while achieving the same 500bhp output.

T-34

Cylinder head

Engineers at Chrysler’s new Detroit Tank Arsenal were instructed to come up with an alternative to the Wright radial, and took an innovative approach, using five off-theshelf 6-cylinder blocks and mating them to a purpose-built crankcase, the 30 pistons driving a single crankshaft. No other changes were needed to produce 425hp.

M4A4 SHERMAN

234 . REFERENCE

Tracks and Suspension British tanks of World War I had no sprung suspension system

spring system adopted for the Vickers Medium in 1922.

at all: the tracks simply ran over fixed rollers. As a result,

However, it was not until Christie unveiled his M1928, with

the ride was nothing short of chaotic, and crew members

lengthened suspension travel, that top speed increased

risked serious injury. The French Schneider and St Chamond

dramatically – even if it was rejected by the armed forces of his

used simple leaf and coiled spring systems, which were only

native US, and only adopted by the UK and the Soviet Union.

marginally better, although the light FT-17 improved on the

In the meantime, more complex Horstmann and volute spring

basic principle. J. Walter Christie’s original hybrid system, as

systems became popular, but both eventually gave way to

demonstrated in 1919, was a real step forward, as was the leaf

much simpler, and cheaper, torsion bars.

CONTINUOUS TRACK It was accepted from the outset that the most reliable way of moving a heavy armoured vehicle across the battlefield was by way of “continuous” tracks, even though the system had some drawbacks, including high cost, low durability, and the vulnerability of the entire vehicle if a single track segment was damaged. The design of the tracks themselves and the way in which links Vertical volute springs behind cover

Drive sprocket

Track link

were joined was a matter of concern, too, as were factors such as whether they should be driven from the rear or from the front – which determined whether the upper, “return”, track or the load-bearing lower one should be under tension; each had their pros and cons. Finally, there was the issue of where the tracks should be located and how they should be held in place. Idler wheel

Track return roller

Road wheel

Track guide

TYPES OF TRACK

DRIVE SPROCKETS

The earliest continuous tracks were simple strips of metal that were connected by hinges to form a closed loop. They were unable to move sideways, and thus were easily shed, and were prone to

slippage. It was more than a decade before designs evolved that enabled lateral movement by means of track guides and grips that provided adequate traction on both hard and soft ground.

Although they started out as simple toothed wheels, drive sprockets evolved into much more complex assemblies over the years, incorporating reduction gears and a free-wheeling capability. They are mounted at the rear of most modern tanks, putting the lower track run under tension, which reduces wear on all major components. Teeth engage with apertures in the track

Tank Mark IV

Vickers Medium

PzKpfw IV Tiger

M1 Abrams

The earliest tracks had link-wide hinges and shallow flanges for grip.

The Medium had narrow links with short hinges that provided flexibility.

The Tiger had wide, aggressive tracks for combat and narrower ones for transportation.

Like many modern tanks, the Abrams’ tracks have removable rubber pads.

Reduction gearing

TRACKS AND SUSPENSION . 235

TYPES OF TANK SUSPENSION There have been six successful suspension systems employed in tracked armoured fighting vehicles, and several more that were abandoned. Of the successful ones, five relied on the most significant physical property of spring steel: its determination to return to the form in which it was manufactured

at the earliest possible opportunity. The most effective of these “spring” systems is the torsion bar, which is the only one still in widespread use today. The sixth system is the active hydropneumatic arrangement, which was first employed in Citröen passenger cars in the mid-1950s.

LEAF SPRING

CHRISTIE

Multiple-leaf spring

Coiled spring

Pivot

Upper spring anchorage to hull

Pivot anchored to hull

Bogie

Road wheel doubles as return roller

Swinging arm, pivoted at axle

In use since medieval times, leaf springs are the simplest form of sprung suspension. Strips, or “leaves”, of arced, highly resistant steel are stacked together and mounted so that they absorb the upward pressure of a wheel, pair of wheels, or pair of wheel bogies (as above), and then return to their original configuration.

Developed by J. Walter Christie as part of his efforts to improve overall tank design, this simple system incorporated a coiled spring, which he first mounted vertically, although later horizontal versions proved more effective. The large-diameter road wheels acted as return rollers and were mounted in pairs with the track guides running between them.

VOLUTE SPRING

HORTSMANN

Two vertically-mounted volute springs

Horizontal coil spring

Pivot anchored to hull

Road wheel Swinging arm

Free pivot

One of two pivot points

Swinging arm

A volute spring is a coil-wound leaf spring, the centre of which is then pulled out to form a truncated cone. It acts in compression, the coils sliding over each other, and can be mounted vertically (as above) or horizontally. Volute springs were commonly mounted in tandem pairs on a bogie; road wheels acted on the springs by way of swinging arms.

In the Horstmann system, paired road wheels are mounted on swinging arms, the upward motion of which is cushioned by the compression of springs mounted horizontally between them. It is similar to the horizontal volute spring system, but improves on it: unlike the volute spring, the coiled spring operates in both extension and compression, and so increases wheel travel.

TORSION BAR

HYDROPNEUMATIC

Road wheel

Torsion bar anchored to swinging arm

Nitrogen gas under high pressure Hydraulic fluid reservoire

Flexible membrane Hydraulic fluid

Pump

Hull anchorage

Pivot anchored to hull

Road wheel

Torsion bar Swinging arm Torsion bar suspension also relies on the “memory” of yield-resistant spring steel to maintain its original configuration – in this case as a rod anchored at one end to the tank’s chassis. As its name suggests, the pressure takes the form of a twisting motion imparted by an arm connecting the rod’s free end to the road wheel’s axle.

Swinging arm

In this system, each road wheel is attached to a sphere containing two chambers – an upper one containing nitrogen gas under high pressure, and a lower one containing hydraulic fluid – with a flexible membrane in between. A pump pressurises the fluid, to which additional pressure is applied from the road wheel when under load; the gas compresses, thus acting as a spring.

236 . REFERENCE

Firepower In tank warfare, the shape of things to come was sketched out

role of the tank was to support infantry. This remained important,

near Villers-Bretonneux on April 24, 1918, when British and

but as tank armour grew thicker, guns and ammunition had to

German tanks met for the first time. The British prevailed,

grow increasingly specialized in order to reliably penetrate it. In

thanks to one of their vehicles being a “male”, armed with two

1945 most tank guns firing AP rounds had muzzle velocities of

6-pounder QF guns. During the interwar period, however, tank-on-

around 850m/s (2,800ft/s), and could penetrate roughly 150–

tank encounters were not uppermost in the minds of designers

200mm (6–8in) of armour at 100m (328ft). By 2010 this had

or strategists, and it took exposure to a new type of mechanized

increased to over 1,750m/s (5,750ft/s) with APFSDS, giving

warfare during World War II to shake the belief that the primary

penetration of over 600mm (23.6in) at 2,000m (6,560ft).

Firing solenoid

72.2cm- (28.4in-) long barrel

MACHINE-GUNS Tanks will always be vulnerable at close quarters against determined infantry, with machine-guns being the usual defence. Most modern tanks mount at least two – one co-axially (i.e on the same axis) with the main gun, and one mounted on the roof that is aimed independently. Up until the late 1940s, most tanks also had a bow machine-gun in the front of the hull. This provided extra firepower, but was difficult to aim. It also created a weak point in the frontal armour. As main-gun ammunition increased in size, the space was instead used to store more of it. Co-axial and bow machine-guns are usually of around 7.62mm/0.3in calibre. Roof-mounted guns often fire heavier 12.7mm/0.5in rounds. On some tanks this weapon can be aimed and fired from inside the vehicle.

Gas tube

PKT 7.62mm machine-gun The PKT was developed by Mikhail Kalashnikov from his AK assault rifle, but chambered for the longer and more powerful 7.62 x 54mm rimmed round. As it was mounted co-axially, the sights, butt, bipod, and trigger were not fitted. Instead, an electrically fired solenoid trigger unit was installed and the tanks’ sights were used for aiming.

Water cooling jacket

Cocking lever

114.3cm (45in)-long heavy barrel

Trigger

Barrel shroud

Vickers Mark VI .303in machine-gun

Browning M2 .50-calibre machine-gun

Variants of the Vickers machine-gun, including the Mark VI, were used as a secondary armament in a number of British tanks during the inter-war period. They were gradually replaced in tanks by Browning and Besa machine-guns in the early 1940s, although the Vickers continued to be used elsewhere until the 1960s.

One of a number of highly reliable recoil-operated designs developed by John Moses Browning, the M2 has been used by infantry, on armoured and unarmoured vehicles, aboard ship, and on aircraft since the 1920s. When fitted to a tank, it is invariably roofmounted and aimed by the commander.

MAIN GUNS The development of the tank’s main gun has been largely linear. Size, both in terms of calibre and barrel length, has steadily increased in order to fire more powerful ammunition, but the fundamental principle of a high-velocity, direct-fire weapon remains. Many of the innovations in tank gunnery have been in fire control systems, ensuring that this weapon can hit its target as often as possible. Modern systems integrate stabilizers, laser rangefinders,

high-magnification thermal sights, and ballistic computers to allow highly accurate fire at extreme range under any conditions. Another innovation is the autoloader, which uses a mechanical system rather than a crew member to select and load ammunition. Many recent tanks are armed with smoothbore guns, which fire projectiles stabilized by fins rather than spinning. Smoothbores can also be used to fire guided missiles.

Recoil recuperator Safety guard

Breech

Elevation gearing

Gun tube is 64 calibres (5.37m/211in) long

FIREPOWER . 237

HIGH-EXPLOSIVE SQUASH HEAD

HIGH-EXPLOSIVE ANTI-TANK

Developed in Britain in the late 1940s, HESH rounds have a very short delay in their fuze. This gives them time to expand across the surface of the armour on impact before detonation. Their explosive force causes partial disintegration of the plate, which drives lethal fragments of metal off the inner surface of the armour, potentially killing crewmen inside the tank.

HEAT rounds utilise a shaped charge to produce a “superplastic” jet of molten metal that punches its way through armour plate. It does not burn through: the effect is caused exclusively by kinetic energy. This Munroe Effect, as it is also known, is widely used in anti-tank grenades. HEAT rounds are less effective against composite armour containing ceramic plates.

Warhead squashes against armour

Lethal jet of metal inside tank

Shaped charge produces jet of molten metal

Lethal fragments of metal inside tank

ARMOUR-PIERCING FIN-STABILIZED DISCARDING SABOT

ARMOUR-PIERCING DISCARDING SABOT

APFSDS rounds are the most effective anti-tank weapons on the modern battlefield. The penetrator dart is made from a highly dense material, often tungsten or depleted uranium, as this maximises its mass and therefore armour penetration. APFSDS rounds do not spin, since this reduces armour penetration, instead relying on their fins for stability in flight.

APDS rounds were developed during World War II. Unlike earlier Kinetic Energy rounds, it uses a sub-calibre (i.e. smaller than the gun barrel) penetrator encased in a sabot. This design allows for the highest possible velocity, which maximises armour penetration, combined with the best aerodynamic performance, which ensures high accuracy. Sabot disintegrates on leaving muzzle

Sabot disintegrates on leaving muzzle

Penetrator pierces armour

SHELL SIZES

Rifling imparts spin to projectiles to increase accuracy

Muzzle counterweight CENTURION MARK 3

The effort to produce increasingly powerful main gun ammunition to counter ever-thicker armour had an entirely predictable effect: the projectiles got bigger, the charge needed to launch them increased proportionately, and so did the length of the cartridge case containing it.

Ordnance QF 20-pounder The 20-pounder armed the FV4007 Centurion Mk 3 tank, in service with the British Army (and many others) from 1948. This was a much more powerful weapon than its predecessor, the war-time 17-pounder. It had a calibre of 83.4mm (3,28in), and could fire APCBC and APDS anti-tank rounds, as well as HE, canister, and smoke shells.

2-pounder 75mm

85mm

88mm

238 . REFERENCE

Protection When tanks were conceived, they were imagined to have one

However, it was not possible to make armour thick enough to

sole function: to precede attacking infantry across no-man’s

protect against the German 7.7cm field gun, which was soon in

land and give them protection from enemy machine-gun fire

an anti-tank role. By the 1930s, effective anti-tank guns had also

by supressing it with their own guns and machine-guns. They

appeared – and had of course found their way into tanks. Thus a

themselves had to be protected, which meant fitting them

vicious circle was established, with ever more powerful anti-tank

with 12mm (0.47in) of rolled steel armour on their exposed

guns being created and put into tanks, and designers piling

front faces, although that soon increased to 14mm (0.55in)

heavier and heavier armour onto their vehicles in the hope,

to withstand the armour-piercing 7.92mm K bullet.

often forlorn, of staying ahead of the opposition.

Thinnest armour on top

PzKpfw VI Tiger armour

ARMOUR The earliest type of armour consisted of plates of rolled steel, which were made by passing cast billets between rollers until the metal was the desired thickness. This repeated compression had the effect of aligning the molecules in the steel, which toughened the material. The next stage was face-hardenening, which saw the plates re-heated on a bed of granular carbon, a process known as “carburizing” (the two types were often employed together, to produce what was known as “cemented” armour – a process developed in Germany by Krupp). From then on it was necessary to introduce alloys such as chromium, molybdenum, nickel, and later tungsten to produce a tougher product. Some anti-tank rounds burn through armour, rather than penetrating by kinetic energy, and to combat these layers of ceramic blocks were introduced, giving modern vehicles their distinctive angular appearance. Such armour is often known as “Chobham”, after the Surrey town where it was developed, and is invulnerable to AT rounds.

Somewhat surprisingly, the Tiger’s designers at Henschel u Söhne chose near-vertical armour for their heavy tank, relying on thickness rather than geometry to defeat Allied anti-tank weapons. Only the front glacis was acutely sloped, at 13 degrees to the horizontal, while other sloped faces (the front and sides of the hull and turret) were at just 9 degrees from the vertical.

Thickest armour facing forward

Light armour Small, light tanks such as the British Mark VIB sacrificed armour weight for the sake of speed, manoeuvrability, and transportablity.

Relatively poor belly armour

25mm

Heavy armour Large, heavy vehicles such as the German Jagtiger sacrificed speed and manoeuvrability for the sake of protection.

Composite armour Modern vehicles such as the Israeil Merkava Mark 4 are both fast and manoeuvrable, being protected by composite armour, which is generally lighter than all-metal alternatives.

Interleaved wheels increase protection

60mm

80–100mm

100–120mm

SLOPED AND UNSLOPED ARMOUR COMPARED

Setting armour at an angle to the vertical offers two advantages. Firstly, the angle increases the thickess of the armour to be penetrated. Secondly, it makes it likelier that an anti-tank projectile, especially one with an curved profile, will be deflected away from the tank and so expend itself uselessly.

Vertical plate presents a thickness of 50mm

Vertical

The same plate at 30 degrees presents a thickness of 71mm

30 degrees

PROTECTION . 239

BAR ARMOUR

EXPLOSIVE REACTIVE ARMOUR

Fitting light armoured vehicles with bar armour is an inexpensive way of improving their overall level of protection by mounting a framework of hardened steel bars (usually horizontally) over vulnerable areas. Such protection is ineffective against kinetic-energy rounds such as APFSDS, and of only limited efficacy against HESH rounds, but it can defeat lightweight HEAT rounds such as those delivered by grenade launchers like the RPG-7, which such vehicles will often encounter – by detonating them before they reach the bodywork of the vehicle itself.

An alternative form of supplementary armour, explosive reactive armour consists of a layer of relatively thin armour plating with a backing of high explosive. When the exposed armour plate is struck by a HEAT projectile, the jet of molten metal formed in the incoming round’s warhead pierces it in the usual way, but then detonates the high explose charge beneath, which reacts by blowing the entire panel off the target vehicle before the HEAT round can penetrate its main defensive armour. It can be defeated by so-called “tandem charge” HEAT rounds, which employ two charges, the second detonating milliseconds after the first, by which time the armour has been exposed.

Horizontal bar armour, viewed side-on

Explosive detonates early

Steel “flyer” plate Flexible explosive layers

Jet of molten copper released from HEAT round

Jet of molten copper Copper makes little impact on primary armour

HEAT round detonates explosive layers Explosive layers throw back flyer plate

Primary armour

Explosive

Primary armour

RPG HEAT round casing

Energy of HEAT round dissipates

SMOKE GRENADES

CAMOUFLAGE

Smoke has long been used to screen or obscure targets on the battlefield. Modern smoke grenades work in both the visual and infra-red ends of the spectrum, meaning that tanks can also be hidden from thermal imaging systems. Since the 1940s, the method of choice for delivering smoke has been by means of grenades launched from projectors usually located on the vehicle’s turret. These can be fired from within the vehicle, and a salvo of grenades will quickly form a large screen.

The intricate paint scheme on the first tanks was intended to hide them from enemy guns. Ever since, camouflage has become more sophisticated in order to defeat increasingly capable sensors. Methods have included paint, infra-red suppressive paint, and thermal cladding.

Smoke grenades discharged from launchers on either side of the turret

Challenger 2 thermal insulation The easiest way to detect a large vehicle in poor visibility is by means of its thermal image, or the heat it gives off. A surprising degree of protection can be achieved simply by fitting the vehicle with thermal insulation – such as the Solar Shield system fitted to this Challenger 2. Enemy tank

Enemy tank Grenades can be launched over a variety of distances

PL-01 radiation-absorbent coating Smoke screen obscures the tank’s movements

The experimental Polish PL-01 tank is coated with radiation-absorbent material, which “soaks up” all forms of electromagnetic radiation, including radar. This techonology exists in a variety of types, and is similar to that used in so-called “stealth” aircraft.

240 . REFERENCE

Anti-tank Weapons The first effective anti-tank weapons were steel-cored rifle

British 2- and 6-pounders. From then on, as armour grew

bullets for the 7.92mm Mauser rifle that proved able to pierce

thicker, AT guns became more powerful and significantly larger,

the armour of Mark I and Mark II tanks. Mauserwerke was then

culminating in the 17-pounder, the PAK43, and the Soviet ZiS-2.

instructed to develop something more powerful, and responded

Meanwhile, more effective and lighter infantry AT weapons,

with the first purpose-built AT weapon – the 13.2mm Tankgewehr

including mines, grenades, and recoilless guns, were being

M1918 rifle. However, it was not until 1928 that a true anti-tank

developed, as were vehicles designed specifically to hunt and

gun, the German PAK36, appeared. It was soon adopted as a

kill tanks. Since the 1960s, guided missiles, whether carried by

tank gun, as were other nations’ towed AT guns, such as the

infantry or on vehicles, have also become increasingly common.

Hawkins No. 75 grenade

RKG-3 grenade

Tellermine 35

Mauser T-Gewehr M1918

The No. 75 could be used as a grenade or, more effectively, as a mine.

On being released, a parachute deployed from the RKG, ensuring that it struck nose-down.

Filled with 5.5kg (12lb) of TNT, the Tellermine 35 was triggered by 90kg (198lb) of pressure.

The single-shot, bolt-action T-Gewehr 18 weighed 18.5kg (41lb) loaded and with its bipod in place. Its round could pierce 22mm (.87in) of armour at 100m (330ft), but its recoil was fearsome.

Barrel incorporates a recoil compensator

Panzerfaust This simple rocket-propelled grenade launcher was very effective at close range. Towards the end of World War II, it was issued to German troops in large numbers.

Boys Mk 1 anti-tank rifle Though able to pierce only 23mm (0.9in) of armour at 90m (300ft), the .55in-calibre Boys AT Rifle, skilfully used, proved effective against German PzKpfw IIs during the Battle of France in 1940.

Switch ignites propellant charge

Warhead

Projector, Infantry, Anti-Tank (PIAT) PIAT was actually a spigot mortar that fired a 1.36kg (3lb) bomb with a shaped-charge warhead, which could penetrate 75mm (3in) of armour at 110m (360ft). Handles used to split trail into firing position

RPG-7 The RPG-7’s two-stage propellant charge gives it a range of over 1,000m (3,300ft) – at which its HEAT warhead can still penetrate 500mm (20in) of armour.

Gun shield

Vertically-acting sliding breech block Recoil compensator

ZiS-2 The 57mm-calibre ZiS-2 went into production in mid-1941. Manufacture ceased within six months, but restarted again in 1943, when it became clear that its intended upgrade, the 76mm ZiS-3, was inadequate. Semi-automatic, the ZiS-2 could fire 25 rounds per minute.

A N T I -TA N K W E A P O N S . 24 1

Sd.Kfz 302/303 Goliath

Humber Hornet

A self-propelled, wire-guided mine carrying up to 100kg (220lb) of explosive, powered either by batteries or a 2-stroke petrol engine, Goliath was an early attempt at introducing unmanned vehicles to the battlefield. It was unsuccessful due to the vulnerability of its guide cables and its low speed.

Introduced in 1958 to deploy the Anglo-Australian Malkara optically-tracked wire-guided missile, the Hornet was air-portable and could be dropped by parachute. Malkara was the most powerful missile of its type, with a 27kg (60lb) warhead. It could destroy any tank then in service.

M10 Achilles

M56 Scorpion

A British modification of the American M10, mounting the 17-pounder anti-tank gun, the Achilles had an excellent combat record, due largely to its ability to pierce 192mm (7.6in) of armour at a range of 1,000m (3,300ft) with APDS projectiles. It saw service from 1944.

A short-lived and unsuccessful attempt to produce a lightweight tank destroyer for airborne units, the Scorpion was simply an M54 90mm AT gun mounted on an unarmoured aluminium body. Inside, there was room only for ammunition, the engine, and a driver.

FV102 Striker The anti-tank guided-missile-launcher member of the CVR(T) family, Striker carried five Swingfire wire-guided missiles in a launcher at the rear, with five reloads. The missiles could be launched and guided remotely, allowing the vehicle to remain hidden.

Smoke grenade launchers

Drive sprocket at front

Observation ports

Launcher holds five missiles

242 . REFERENCE

Uniforms and Protective Clothing The ineffective or non-existent suspension in the first tanks

if the tank took a direct hit from a heavier weapon. Some

meant that even driving was risky for the crews. They were left

protective clothing was available, but where it was effective it

to hang on and hope to avoid broken bones and cracked heads

was often too restrictive to be practical. Later generations of

as they carried out their roles. Added to that, in combat there

vehicles were much easier on the crew, and by the time of World

was the danger of “splash” – molten metal from bullets and shell

War II, the only protection generally worn was a helmet and

fragments entering the tank through the gaps between the

uniforms were often little more than overalls. Combat experience

sheets of armour plating – and “spalling” (lethal fragments chipped from the tank’s own armour)

Overalls One-piece cotton overalls were worn over breeches and tunics. They ranged in colour from black through blue to grey with matching cloth belts.

revealed the dangers of fire, and more recently tank crews have been issued with purpose-designed fireproof clothing.

T-34 TANK CREWMAN’S KIT Russian tank crews of World War II were consistently better supplied than their adversaries, especially during the cold weather. Nevertheless, their clothing was strictly utilitarian, displaying none of the decorative elements sometimes found in other armies.

Telogreika The winter uniform was made of cotton duck padded with cotton wool sewn in strips.

Helmet and goggles After 1941, cowhide helmets were replaced by canvas padded with kapok. Goggles protected against wind and dust only; their glass was not shatterproof.

Sergeant’s stripes

PISTOL HOLSTER Spare magazine

Tokarev TT Model 1933 The Tokarev was widely issued to all ranks. Chambered for the 7.62 x 25mm round, it lacked the firepower of handguns issued in other armies.

Eight-round magazine

Schuba In particularly cold conditions, troops were issued with these three-quarterlength sheepskin coats.

Sapogi The tankman’s Sapogi, worn over bandages, not socks, had rubber soles, with no hobnails or heel and toe irons. Only the lower part of the boot was leather, the rest was synthetic rubber or rubberised canvas.

UNIFORMS AND PROTECTIVE CLOTHING . 243

HELMETS

Protective steel helmets as issued to infantrymen were of very little use to tank crew, who risked not bullet wounds but cracked skulls as their unsprung vehicles bounced across the battlefield.

US 1ST ARMORED DIVISION

BRITISH ROYAL TANK REGIMENT

GERMAN WORLD WAR II TANK BATTLE BADGE

SOVIET WORLD WAR II “EXCELLENT TANKER”

TANK INSIGNIA Since their inception, tank crews have been considered an elite force. As with other elite units they have made use of distinctive badges and insignia to celebrate this.

Some were awarded on completion of crew training, others after taking part in combat. The British Tank Arm Badge was the first to be introduced, during World War I.

UK World War I British crews wore boiled cowhide helmets, some of which had visors and chain-mail masks for the lower face (not shown).

UNIFORMS OF WORLD WAR II Tank crews during World War II wore a wide variety of uniforms, depending on their environment. Much of it was similar to that of their comrades fighting on foot, especially in extreme conditions such as the desert, but specialist clothing was also developed to meet their needs. As tank crews are usually seated and cannot move around to keep warm, their clothing was often more heavily padded, and featured pockets in places accessible when sitting down, such as the lower leg. Waist-length jackets, to prevent them bunching up while seated, were common, as was the use of smooth-faced material such as leather, and clothing with minimal external features like straps so that crews did not risk getting snagged on their tank as they tried to evacuate in an emergency.

Rank badges (in this case three “pips”) worn on epaulet

UK World War II Since they often went into battle with open hatches, British tank crews were issued with steel helmets for protection.

7.65mm Modèle 1935A pistol in button-down holster

Soviet 1960s SGT., CHAR DE COMBAT, FRENCH ARMY

CAPT., 3RD KOH, BRITISH ARMY French pattern metal helmet worn over beret

Bergmütze peaked field cap

Pre-1941-pattern helmet in padded cowhide

Winged eagle, insignia of the Wehrmacht

Three quarterlength French pattern leather jacket

The Red Army issued helmets with padded ribs well into the 1960s, although by then provision was made for wearing earphones.

UK contemporary As is common today, British crews wear lightweight helmets made of composite materials. Earphones are worn separately.

Large button-down patch pocket Knee-high, lace-up boots were impractical in desert conditions

US contemporary

TANKMAN, POLISH ARMY

GEFREITER, 15TH PANZER DIVISION, GERMAN ARMY

TANKMAN, RED ARMY

American tankmen wear ergonomicallydesigned helmets that incorporate earphones and microphones.

244 . REFERENCE

Glossary Action The method of loading and/or firing a gun.

Active Protection System (APS) A method of defeating anti-tank weapons that does not rely on armour. Passive systems use jamming and smoke to defeat missile guidance systems. Active systems use projectiles to shoot down the missile.

Amphibious vehicle A vehicle that can swim across water as well as drive on land.

Anti Tank Guided Missile (ATGM) Also known as ATGW (Anti-Tank Guided Weapon). A term covering weapons intended to destroy tanks that can be controlled in flight by the firer. Guidance can take the form of radio, infra-red imaging, laser homing, or even a length of wire connecting the missile to the launcher.

Appliqué armour Add-on armour plates that can be mounted onto the hull or turret of an AFV to increase protection.

Armour Piercing Discarding Sabot (APDS) A projectile of a calibre smaller than that of the barrel in which it is fired, and so is carried by a casing or “sabot” inside the barrel. Once fired, the sabot falls away. APDS rounds have greater armour penetration than full-calibre projectiles.

Armour Piercing Fin Stabilized Discarding Sabot (APFSDS) An APFSDS round uses the same design principle as APDS. Unlike APDS it does not spin and is stabilized by fins like a dart. APFSDS rounds are longer, travel faster, and can penetrate more armour than APDS. It is the most effective armourpiercing round used by modern tanks.

Armour Piercing High Explosive (APHE) An AP round that contains a small explosive charge. This detonates after the round has penetrated the target’s armour, causing much more damage inside the tank than a conventional AP round.

Autoloader Armoured car A lightweight wheeled armoured fighting vehicle used for reconnaissance and armed escort duties.

A device designed to insert shells into the breech of the main gun of a tank. It replaces the loader, or crewman dedicated to loading the gun.

Armoured Fighting Vehicle (AFV)

Automatic

An armed and well-armoured combat vehicle. Combining battlefield mobility, offensive capabilities, and armour protection, AFVs can include tanks, armoured cars, troop carriers, amphibious vehicles, air defence vehicles, and selfpropelled artillery.

A gun that continuously loads and fires while its trigger is pressed.

Armoured Personnel Carrier (APC) A type of AFV designed to transport infantry to the battlefield, where they are dropped off to fight on their own. APCs are usually lightly armed and armoured.

Armour Piercing (AP) A type of ammunition that relies on its kinetic energy rather than explosive power to defeat armour. Types of AP ammunition include APC, APCBC, HVAP, APDS, and APFSDS.

Armour Piercing Capped (APC) An armour-piercing round fitted with a softer cap to prevent the round shattering on impact with armour plate.

Armour Piercing Capped Ballistic Cap (APCBC) An APC round fitted with a thin aerodynamic nose cone to ensure its velocity remains high throughout its flight. The nose does not affect the round’s armour penetration ability.

Ball mount A spherical machine-gun mount usually located on the frontal plate of a tank’s hull. Unlike a fixed or coaxial mount, a ball mount moves independently of other weapons, giving the gunner greater flexibility when aiming. Ball mounts fell out of favour after World War II.

Breacher vehicle

Christie suspension

An armoured vehicle fitted with equipment such as a plough or dozer blade that is designed to drive through minefields, clearing a path for troops and vehicles.

The closed rear end of a gun’s barrel. It is opened to receive ammunition.

A revolutionary type of tank suspension designed by American engineer J. Walter Christie in 1928. Each wheel was given its own suspension spring and an unprecedented freedom of vertical movement, thus enabling the vehicle to move at high speed over rough ground. Early versions had powered road wheels and could be driven without tracks.

Bridge layer

Co-axial machine-gun

Officially known as an Armoured VehicleLaunched Bridge (AVLB), a bridge layer is a combat support vehicle that can deploy and retrieve a removable metal bridge to enable tanks and other AFVs to cross rivers, craters, trenches, and other obstacles.

A machine-gun mounted on the same axis as a vehicle’s main gun. It is aimed using the same sights, and can be used if the main gun’s force is deemed excessive or inappropriate.

Breech

Bridging weight The weight classification of a vehicle used to calculate what kind of bridge it can cross safely.

Brigade A military unit made up of regimentor battalion-size units. Its strength is usually around 5,000 soldiers.

Calibre The internal diameter of a gun barrel. Since the 1950s this has almost always been expressed in millimetres (mm).

Canister shot An antipersonnel round intended to give tanks and artillery protection from infantry. Canister rounds contain a large number of small, non-explosive projectiles. When fired, the canister disintegrates, releasing the projectiles onto the enemy at high velocity.

Column A formation of tanks arranged one in front of another.

Combat engineer vehicle An AFV used to transport combat engineers around the battlefield, often fitted with mine-breaching devices such as a bulldozer’s blade.

Combat weight The total mass of a tank when fully equipped for the battlefield.

Command vehicle A vehicle containing the facilities a commander needs to lead his unit. This can include multiple radios, map boards, and desk space for aides and staff officers.

Commander The tank crewman responsible for commanding the tank. Depending on his seniority he may also be in command of other tanks and supporting arms.

Cartridge A unit of ammunition consisting of a projectile and a brass or steel case containing its propellant.

Ceramic plate

Company A military unit, normally equivalent in size to the squadron and consisting of around 150 soldiers or 14–18 tanks. “Company” was traditionally an infantry term.

A component of composite armour.

Bar armour Also known as slat armour or cage armour, bar armour is a mesh of steel bars that is added to an AFV’s hull to protect it against RPGs.

Composite armour Chain gun A machine-gun or cannon that uses a motor-driven chain to power its moving parts, rather than gas or recoil from the fired round.

Battalion A military unit consisting of around 700 soldiers or 30–50 tanks. It is made up of companies or squadrons. Battalions can operate independently for limited periods.

Bogie An arrangement of wheels, typically featuring two pairs.

Bore The internal diameter of a gun barrel.

Bow The front end of a tank.

Chobham armour Chobham armour is the unofficial name for a type of composite armour developed in the 1960s at the British tank research centre on Chobham Common, Surrey. It was designed to be particularly effective against shaped charges. Its elements remain a secret, but they are known to include ceramic tiles encased in metal mesh bonded to a backing plate with several elastic layers. Official names or different variants of Chobham include Burlington and Dorchester armour.

A type of vehicle armour composed of different layers of material, such as metals, plastics, and ceramics.

Corps A military unit, usually made up of several divisions, with a strength of 50,000 soldiers or more.

Counter-insurgency Military operations aimed at defeating an enemy that does not operate as a distinct military force. The objective of counter-insurgency is generally political control and securing civilian support, rather than military victory. Counterinsurgency vehicles are usually armoured against mines or IEDs, and are often wheeled to appear less threatening.

GLOSSARY . 245

Cruiser tank Also called the cavalry tank or fast tank, the cruiser tank was a British concept developed in the inter-war period. Light and fast, it was intended to make rapid advances after a breakthrough.

Cupola A mini turret situated atop the main turret, giving the commander a better view of the battlefield.

Deep battle A tactical doctrine developed in the inter-war period – notably by Mikhail Tukhachevsky in the Soviet Union – that emphasised attacking the enemy throughout the depth of their positions rather than at the front line only. The intention was to quickly break through and destroy vital support facilities such as command units and supply dumps, preventing front line forces from continuing to fight.

making targets invisible to sensors, jamming communications, and preventing the activation of roadside bombs.

Gunner

Elevation

Half-track

The extent to which a tank’s main gun can be raised above the horizontal; the greater the angle, the greater the range. Elevation is the opposite of depression.

A vehicle with conventional wheels at the front for steering, and a caterpillar track at the rear for propulsion. The design fuses the cross-country capabilities of a tank with the handling of a road vehicle.

Enfilade

Heavy tank

Gunfire aimed along an enemy position from end to end. In World War I, trenches were vulnerable to such attack, especially from tanks, and so were dug in a zig-zag fashion.

See Reactive armour.

A class of slow but heavily armoured tanks designed for infantry support. The very first tanks of World War I were of this class, and became known as “heavies” as lighter, faster, more manoeuvrable tanks were introduced. Heavy tanks were usually more heavily armed and armoured, but slower than other vehicles.

Firing port

High Explosive (HE)

Hull

A port on the side of an IFV that enables infantry to bring small arms fire to bear without leaving the vehicle.

A type of ammunition that uses explosive blast to affect the target. Types include HE-Frag, HEAT, HESH, and APHE. Modern HE rounds are less effective against tanks, but can still damage or destroy lighter vehicles and are highly effective against unprotected infantry.

The main body of the tank beneath the turret.

Explosive Reactive Armour (ERA)

Depleted uranium An extremely dense material used both in tank armour and in armourpiercing projectiles.

Depression The extent to which a tank’s main gun can be lowered beneath the horizontal. This ability is particularly important when the tank is behind the crest of a hill, with its hull pointing upwards. Depression is the opposite of elevation.

Diesel A liquid fuel that ignites when compressed.

Direct fire Fire aimed at a target that can be seen by the gunner. Direct fire is the opposite of indirect fire.

Flame tank A type of tank equipped with a flamethrower, usually used in specialised operations, particularly attacks on fortifications.

The tank crewman responsible for aiming (or “laying”) and firing the main gun.

A tank or armoured vehicle becoming stuck in a trench or other depression.

Division A military unit, usually made up of a number of brigades. Containing their own logistical units, divisions are generally the smallest units capable of independent operations on the battlefield. Their strength is usually around 20,000 men.

A unit of power equal to 550 ft-lb per second (750 watts) used to measure the output of an engine. The term was adopted in the 18th century by British engineer James Watt to compare the output of steam engines with the amount of work performed by a single draft horse.

Horstmann suspension A type of suspension developed by British engineer Sidney Horstmann in 1922. Featuring coil springs, it was used on the Vickers Light, Centurion, and Chieftain tanks, among others.

Hull-down / Hull-up When only the turret of a tank is visible above the crest of a hill or another obstacle it is said to be hull-down; when the entire body is visible it is said to be hull-up.

Humvee

The movement of an armed force around the side, or flank, of an enemy force to gain tactical advantage.

HE-Frag uses explosive blast and fragmentation to destroy its target. It is most effective against lightly armoured targets.

The High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV) is a four-wheel drive military light truck that came of age during the First Gulf War.

Fume extractor

High Explosive Anti Tank (HEAT)

Hydropneumatic suspension

A vent on a gun barrel that prevents poisonous fumes from a fired round from leaking back into the crew compartment. It uses the changes in pressure in the barrel to force the fumes out of the muzzle.

A HEAT round uses a shaped-charge warhead to form a high-speed jet of molten metal that penetrates armour. Since they do not depend on velocity for their effect, HEAT warheads are commonly fitted to slower munitions, such as missiles and mines.

A form of suspension that uses oil and pneumatic pressure to keep a vehicle level.

Flanking manoeuvre

The sloped, front-most section of the hull of a tank. Its angle helps deflect projectiles, and presents a greater thickness of armour for a projectile striking it horizontally to pass through.

Gradient The degree of slope up which a tank can travel.

Grousers

The tank crewman responsible for driving the vehicle.

Studded or treaded extensions that are added to a tank’s tracks to give it greater traction on loose materials such as soil or snow.

Echelon

Guided munition

A formation of tanks arranged diagonally. Following vehicles are either positioned to the rear and right (Right Echelon) or left (Left Echelon) of the leader.

Unlike a bullet, which follows a trajectory determined by gravity and its propellant charge only, the flight path of a guided munition can be altered.

Electronic Countermeasures (ECM)

Gun sight

Electronic devices used to disrupt and deceive enemy detection, communication, or signalling systems. Their functions include

An optical device used by gunners to aim with greater accuracy. Telescopic sights for tanks were adopted before World War II.

Driver

Horsepower

High Explosive Fragmentation (HE-Frag)

Idler A non-driven end wheel of a tracked vehicle that serves to adjust track tension.

Improvised Explosive Device (IED)

Glacis plate Ditching

vehicles that could destroy fortifications or carry fascines to fill obstacles. They took their name from Major General Sir Percy Hobart, the commander of the division.

High Explosive Squash Head (HESH) A HESH round is a munition used against armoured vehicles and fortifications. On impact, the plastic explosive at the head of the round squashes against the surface of the target before exploding. This transmits a shockwave through the armour, causing fragments of steel to detach from the tank interior at high velocity, potentially killing crew members.

High Velocity Armour Piercing (HVAP) An armour-piercing round that has a high-density core surrounded by lighter material. The latter reduces weight, enabling higher velocity and greater armour penetration.

Hobart’s Funnies A number of tank variants used by the British 79th Armoured Division during World War II. These included tanks modified to carry bridges, mine ploughs, flails, a swimming tank, and engineer

A bomb constructed in an improvised manner rather than being designed for the purpose. IEDs can use chemicals such as fertilizer, or make use of adapted mines or artillery shells. They are also known as roadside bombs.

Indirect fire Fire aimed at a target that cannot be seen by the gunner. It usually requires a separate forward observer to correct the aim. Indirect fire is the opposite of direct fire.

Infantry Fighting Vehicle (IFV) A type of AFV used to carry infantry to the battlefield. Unlike APCs, IFVs are able to enter combat, possessing heavier armour and armament, which sometimes includes anti-tank weaponry, and very often firing ports that allow the infantry to fight from inside the vehicle.

Infantry tank A British and French concept developed in the inter-war period. Infantry tanks were slow but well-armoured vehicles that

246 . REFERENCE

were deployed in support of infantry on foot. Once infantry tanks had broken through enemy lines, faster cruiser or light tanks were expected to penetrate deep into enemy territory.

Main Battle Tank (MBT)

Infra-red

Main gun

A type of light radiation that allows the perception of heat signals, among other things. It is useful for night vision and thermal imaging.

A tank’s primary armament. Today, main guns are capable of firing Kinetic Energy projectiles, High Explosive rounds, and even guided missiles.

Kinetic Energy (KE) projectile

Mantlet

A type of munition that relies on its own mass and motion (i.e. kinetic energy) for its destructive power. KE projectiles do not explode. Armour-piercing rounds are examples of KE projectiles, as are ordinary bullets.

A plate of armour that protects the area where a tank’s main gun projects from its turret. In order to fire the gun, this section cannot be concealed from the enemy, so it is often the thickest part of a tank’s armour.

Otherwise known as a universal tank. MBTs are the mainstay of modern tank units, combining elements of their medium and heavy predecessors.

Materiel L/x (Barrel length) The length of a gun barrel expressed in multiples of its calibre. For example, the 120mm L/55 gun has a barrel length of 6.6m (22ft) or 6,600mm (120 x 55).

Landships committee A British committee established by Winston Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, in 1915. Its purpose was to develop armoured fighting vehicles, or “landships”, to break the stalemate on the Western Front. Its chief outcome was the invention of the tank.

Laser rangefinder A means of calculating the range to a target by measuring the time taken for a laser pulse to be reflected off the target and return to the rangefinder. This has replaced previous methods of calculating range on AFVs.

Leaf spring suspension One of the oldest forms of suspension, leaf springs are still common on military vehicles. They are made of slender arcs of steel that are stacked and bound together, forming a springing mount on which a single axle rests.

Light reconnaissance car A series of vehicles used by the British Reconnaissance Corps during World War II. Lightly armed and armoured, they were based on commercial vehicle chassis.

All the hardware needed by a military force to complete a specific mission – from ammunition to fighter jets, if needed.

Medium tank A class of tank that is almost as mobile as a light tank and almost as protected as a heavy tank. Medium tanks came of age during World War II, but first saw service in World War I in the form of the British Medium Mark A “Whippet”.

A term used to refer to Nuclear, Chemical, and Biological weaponry (commonly known as Weapons of Mass Destruction). The effects these weapons can have on a target require the use of specialist protection systems if personnel and equipment are to operate in areas where they have been used.

A system that uses the operator’s eyesight and trigonometry to determine the distance to a target. Two prisms a known distance apart reflect images of the target into the eyepiece of the operator, who then adjusts the angle of the prisms until the two images appear as one. This angle is used to calculate the distance.

Return rollers Small wheels located above a tank’s road wheels that keep the top of the caterpillar track running straight between the drive sprocket and the idler.

Rifling An arrangement of spiral grooves within the barrel of a gun that imparts rotary motion to the fired projectile, which then travels through the air with greater accuracy.

Road wheels

Ordnance Weapons and ammunition, specifically artillery.

Rocket Propelled Grenade (RPG)

Organic An organic military unit is an integral part of a larger formation, rather than being temporarily assigned to it for a specific mission.

An infantry anti-tank rocket launcher, originally made by the Soviet Union. A large number of different models of RPG have been manufactured since the late 1940s, the most common being the RPG-7.

Scout car

Mine Resistant Ambush Protected (MRAP)

Petrol

A combustible hydrocarbon fuel, a derivation of which, JP8, is used to power several NATO tanks.

Processed oil that is used as a fuel in internal combustion engines.

A lightly armed and armoured wheeled vehicle generally used for reconnaissance.

Scouting The action of gathering information about an area or the disposition of enemy forces. Also known as reconnaissance.

Self-propelled gun Platoon A military unit, normally equivalent in size to the troop and consisting of around 30 soldiers or 3–5 tanks.

A mobile artillery piece, such as a howitzer, that is mounted on a motorized wheeled or tracked chassis.

Semi-automatic Molotov cocktail

Pounder

Originally an anti-tank weapon deployed by the Finns against the Soviets during World War II. It was little more than a bottle filled with petrol with a lighted wick that was dropped into the hatches of Soviet tanks – a “gift” for the Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov.

The system used to identify British artillery and anti-tank rounds based on the weight of the projectile in pounds (1 lb = 0.454kg). It fell out of use after World War II, and was replaced by calibre.

Multibank engine An engine with a high number of cylinders arranged in multiple lines or banks.

Radial engine An engine configuration in which the cylinders are positioned in a circle, “radiating” out from a central crankcase.

The forward, open end of a gun’s barrel.

The number of rounds that can be fired by a given weapon, usually expressed in rounds per minute.

Muzzle brake The tank crewman responsible for loading the main gun.

A device attached to the end of the barrel of a main gun to vent propellant gases and reduce recoil.

Machine-gun

NATO

A weapon that uses the gas or recoil from its fired projectile to cycle its action and so give continuous automatic fire.

An acronym for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, an international alliance of countries from North America and

A gun that will only fire one round when the trigger is pulled, but loads the next round automatically.

Shaped charge An explosive charge shaped in order to focus the energy of its explosion in a particular direction, which enhances its effect. Shaped charges are used in HEAT rounds.

Shrapnel shell Rate of fire

A formation of tanks arranged side by side.

Loader

A military unit whose nature varies depending on its country of origin. Some nations use the term for an operational unit of brigade or battalion size, others for a ceremonial or administrative unit that does not fight on the battlefield.

The main wheels that rotate within the tracks of a tank. They are unpowered and serve only to distribute the tank’s weight.

Paraffin

A class of vehicle designed as a response to the increasing use of IEDs in Iraq after the invasion of 2003. MRAPs use design features such as V-shaped hulls to protect against IED blasts, and are armoured against direct fire attack.

Regiment

Optical rangefinder

The art of planning and executing the movement of military forces, from directing men and materiel to battlefields to setting up and maintaining supply chains.

Muzzle Line

NBC

Military logistics

Light tank A thinly armoured tank designed for rapid movement rather than aggressive combat power. Today, its role is largely confined to reconnaissance.

Western Europe originally formed in 1949 in opposition to the Soviet Union.

Reactive armour A type of appliqué armour that reacts to incoming enemy projectiles to reduce the damage done to the vehicle. The most common type is Explosive Reactive Armour, which explodes when hit by a penetrating weapon, damaging the latter and dissipating its energy.

An anti-personnel artillery munition, shrapnel shells were designed to explode in mid-air over enemy positions, showering the area with lethal balls of steel or lead. Since the end of World War I, shrapnel has been superseded by high-explosive shells, which produce both explosive blast and fragments on detonation.

Sloped armour Armour that is sloped to give greater protection to a tank’s hull or turret. The angled surface helps deflect projectiles,

GLOSSARY . 247

and presents a greater thickness of armour for a projectile striking it horizontally to pass through.

Super-heavy tank

Track

Warhead

A tank of a size and mass greater than that of a heavy tank.

The part of a projectile that contains the explosive. Other parts can include a guidance system or a fuse.

Smoke

Tactics

The continuous belt running through or around the geared sprocket wheel, idler, road wheels, and return rollers of a tank.

A means of hiding the movements of a vehicle or unit. Smoke can be dispensed by injecting fuel into a tank’s exhaust, activating a vehicle’s smoke grenade launchers, or firing a shell from a tank’s main gun. Modern smoke works in both the visible and infra-red ends of the spectrum.

The means by which particular military objectives are met, as opposed to strategy, which concerns the overall aim of a campaign.

Smoothbore A cannon designed to fire fin-stabilized rather than rotating projectiles, and so lacking interior rifling. Because they do not spin, the projectiles travel faster and so have greater armour penetration.

Tandem warhead A feature of recent ATGMs, intended to defeat ERA. The first warhead detonates and triggers the ERA, the second follows a short period later and is able to penetrate the vehicle’s armour, which no longer benefits from the ERA.

Warsaw Pact Transmission The electrical, hydraulic, or mechanical means by which power from an engine is converted into the rotary motion of a vehicle’s wheels or tracks.

Traverse The ability of a gun or turret to rotate from the centre-line of its mount. A fully revolving gun or turret is said to have a traverse of 360 degrees.

Tank

Trench

Flakes broken off armour plate after the impact of a projectile. Some tanks have spall liners as a defence against high-velocity spalling.

An AFV designed for front-line combat, featuring strong armour, heavy firepower, and tracks for battlefield manoeuvrability. Its name derives from the secrecy under which it was conceived – engineers were told that they were working on a new design of water tank.

The field fortification that the tank was designed to overcome. During World War I, strong networks of continuous trenches protected by machine-guns and artillery created a stalemate on the Western Front, and only tanks proved capable of breaking it.

Sponson

Tank destroyer

A gun platform projecting from the side of a tank.

An AFV armed with a direct-fire gun or missile launcher designed specifically to target enemy armoured vehicles.

Spalling

Spotting gun A small-calibre rifle or machine gun used as a ranging device for tank guns. They were used as an alternative to optical rangefinders until the development of the laser rangefinder.

Spring The part of a suspension system that both absorbs the upward movement of the wheels when on rough terrain and keeps the wheels pressed onto the ground.

Sprocket A cogged wheel that meshes with a tank’s track to give the track linear motion. Sprockets are usually the only powered wheels on an AFV.

Squadron A military unit, normally equivalent in size to the company and consisting of around 150 soldiers or 14–18 tanks. “Squadron” was traditionally a cavalry term. In the US Army it is the equivalent of a battalion.

Tankette A tracked AFV resembling a small tank, designed for scouting and light infantry support. Tankettes saw wide use during the inter-war years and World War II, particularly in the Imperial Japanese Army, but have since ceased production because they were found to be too lightly armed and armoured to survive on the battlefield.

Strategy The overall plan of a campaign. Strategic objectives determine the tactical deployment of troops and materiel.

A hinged metal screen that can be extended before a vehicle enters a body of water. This reduces the risk of it being swamped by large amounts of water washing over the front.

Troop A military unit, normally equivalent in size to the platoon and consisting of around 30 soldiers or 3–5 tanks. Troop was traditionally a cavalry term. In the US Army it is the equivalent of a company.

Turret

Titanium

The rotating top section of a tank, accommodating the main gun and most of the crew, usually the commander, gunner, and loader. The first turreted tank was the Renault FT of 1917.

A strong but relatively lightweight metal used in tank armour.

V-shaped hull

Top-attack A method used by modern ATGMs to overcome increasingly capable composite armour. The missile flies over the tank and detonates above it. This directs the warhead at the thinner roof armour.

Stalemate A tactical impasse on a battlefield. The stalemate between the Allied and German armies on the Somme during World War I was caused by both sides being dug in and defended by machine-guns and artillery. The tank was developed by the British specifically to end this stalemate.

Trim vane

Thermal sleeve An insulating device that is placed around the barrel of a main gun. It ensures that the temperature of the barrel remains even: differences can cause the metal to expand, and so affect accuracy.

A design feature that angles the underside of a vehicle upwards. When viewed from the front or rear the lower hull is shaped like a V. This deflects mine blast outwards away from the vehicle, rather than upwards into the crew compartment.

V-twin engine Torsion bar A suspension system that uses a twisting metal bar to cushion the vehicle’s movement.

Tracer A bullet with a pyrotechnic charge in its base. The charge is ignited when the round is fired and shows its trajectory. Tracer helps gunners to direct their fire, especially in circumstances where sights would be less effective, such as in darkness.

A defence treaty between the Soviet Union and the Soviet satellite states of Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Albania. Signed in 1955, the treaty established a counterweight to NATO.

An engine design with two banks of cylinders arranged in a “V” formation.

Volute spring suspension A type of tank suspension featuring a compression spring shaped like a cone, or volute, mounted in a road wheel bogie for a pair of wheels. Commonly used on US and Italian tanks during World War II, it proved more effective than contemporary spring, leaf spring, or torsion bar suspension systems.

Wedge A formation of tanks arranged in a triangular shape.

248 . INDEX

Index 7TP 70

A1E1 Independent 40 A7V Sturmpanzerwagen 23 A9 Cruiser 71 A13 Cruiser Mark III 71 AAV7A1 173 Abrams M1 140, 141, 148–49, 157, 199, 208–09, 216–17, 234, 238 M1A2 218, 222–25 Achilles, M10 241 Action Man, Scorpion CVR(T) 193 Adaptiv camouflage, BAE Systems 227 AEC engine A9 Cruiser 71 Infantry Tank Mark IIA A12 (Matilda II) 71, 74 Matilda Canal Defence Light (CDL) 116 Valentine Bridgelayer 116–17 Valentine Mark II 92–93 AIFV (Armoured Infantry Fighting Vehicle) 177 Ajax 141, 211 Al-Khalid 220–21 Alvis 226 Scorpion CVR(T) 192–95 ammunition stowage Cobra 165 M4 Sherman 89 M18 Hellcat 115 Mark IV 20 Scorpion CVR(T) 195 T-72 137 amphibious tanks AAV7A1 173 Amphibious Light Tank 41 Mark IX 32 PT-76 130 T-37A 46 Type 63 132 AMX 10P 177, 182 AMX VCI 170 AMX-10RC 160–61, 190–91 AMX-13 147, 170 AMX-30B2 148 anti-tank defences, Cold War 184–85 anti-tank weapons 240–41 Arctic camouflage, SU-76M 110 Ariete 219 armour 238–39 Armour Piercing Discarding Sabot (APDS) 142, 237 Armour Piercing Fin Stabilized Discarding Sabot (APFSDS) 142, 237 armoured cars interwar years 44–45 World War I 34–35 World War II 122–25 armoured reconnaissance vehicles, Cold War 168–69 Armstrong Siddeley engine A1E1 Independent 40 Vickers Mark E (6-Ton Tank) 54–55, 56–57 Vickers Medium Mark II 56, 58–61 army games (Russian tank biathlon) 228–29 ASCOD (Austrian-Spanish Co-operation Development) 140, 210 ASLAV 212 ASU-85 159 AT 105 Saxon 183 Audi engine, Wiesel 161 Austin Armoured Car 34 Australia ASLAV 212 Bushmaster 202 Sentinel 93

Austria ASCOD Infantry Fighting Vehicle 210 Pandur I 212 SK-105 Kurassier 160 Ulan 140, 210 Automatic Target Tracking, Merkava Mark 4 221 Automitrailleuse de Découverte (AMD) Panhard modèle 1935 45 azimuth indicator Leopard 1 153 M4 Sherman 89 M18 Hellcat 115

B1 Centauro 161 BA-64 armoured car 123 badges 243 bridging weight, M18 Hellcat 113 M1A2 Abrams 223 see also insignia; recognition symbol; tactical number BAE Systems 226–27 Adaptiv camouflage 227 hybrid electric tank engine 227 bar armour 239 barrel elevation M3 Stuart 83 T-34/85 101 Tiger 77 Beaver engine, Skeleton Tank 33 Bedford engine AT 105 Saxon 183 Black Prince 119 Churchill ARV 117 Churchill AVRE 117 Churchill Crocodile 116 Churchill Mark I 93 Churchill Mark VI 94 Belgium, Minerva Armoured Car 34 Big Willie (Mother) 13, 15, 28, 29 Bison 140, 212 Black Prince 119 Blindado Medio de Ruedas (BMR) 600 182 BMD-1 176 BMD-2 178 BMD-3 179 BMD-4M Airborne Assault Vehicle 211 BMP-1 176–77 BMP-2 177 BMP-3 179 BMV engine, Panzerkampfwagen Neubaufahrzeug 41 Boeing engine, Strv 103C 154–55 Bofors guns 7TP 70 Stridsfordon 90 210–11, 227 Stridsvagn fm/31 41 Strv 103C 154–55 Strv m/40L 57 BOV-M 183 Boxer 215 Boys guns Marmon-Herrington, Mark II 123 Mk 1 anti-tank rifle 240 Bradley, M2 178, 208–09, 226 Brazil, EE-9 Cascavel 160 BRDM 1 168 BRDM 2 168 Bren guns Praying Mantis troop carrier 124 Universal Carrier, Mark II 122–23 bridgelayer, Valentine Mark IX 94 Browning guns AAV7A1 173 AMX VCI 170

Browning guns (cont.) Blindado Medio de Ruedas (BMR) 600 182 Centurion 142–45 Christie M1931 41, 57 Combat Car M1 47 Fox Armoured Car 125 FV603 Saracen 180 FV701(E) Ferret Mark 2/5 168–69 Lynx Command and Reconnaissance Vehicle 169 M1A2 Abrams 222–25 M2 .50-calibre machine-gun 236 M2A3 Light Tank 47 M3 Stuart 80–83 M5 half-track armoured car 124–25 M18 Hellcat 111, 112–15 M59 170 M75 170 M113A1 170–71 M548 186 Marmon-Herrington CTL-3 light tank 46 Mastiff 202–03 Namer 211 OT-64/ SKOT 181 Pandur I 212 Puma (6x6) 213 Ram Kangaroo troop carrier 125 SU60 171 Type 73 173 Véhicule de l’Avant Blindé (VAB) 182–83 YP-408 181 Brummbar 107 BT-7 57 BTR 70 181 BTR-40 180 BTR-50P 170 BTR-60PA 181 BTR-80 183 BTR-152 180–81 Buffalo 202 Buffel 200, 204–07 Buick, M18 Hellcat 112 Bulldog, FV432 171 Bushmaster 202 Bushmaster guns, CV90 226–27 Bussing engine Ratel 20 182 Sd Kfz 231 Schwerer Panzerspahwagen 122 Bv206 173 BvS 10 Viking 211, 227

Cadillac engine M5 80 M5A1 Stuart VI 84 M24 (Chaffee) 85 Sentinel 93 Caiman MRAP 226 camouflage netting, Scorpion CVR(T) 194 Canada Bison 140, 212 Cougar 160, 162–65 CT15TA Armoured Truck 125 Fox Armoured Car 125 Grizzly armoured personnel carrier 162 Husky wheeled maintenance and recovery vehicle 162 LAV-III 140, 212 Ram 94 Ram Kangaroo troop carrier 125 Canadian Army Trophy (CAT) 229 Carden, John Valentine 55 Carden-Loyd Carrier Mark VI 46–47, 102 Cascavel, EE-9 160 Casspir 200–01 Caterpillar engine Buffalo 202 Bushmaster 202 Mastiff 202–03

Caterpillar engine (cont.) Oshkosh M-ATV 203 Piranha III 212–13 Terrex ICV 215 Cavalier 93 cavalry mechanization, interwar years 42–43 Centaur IV (Close Support) 93 Centauro, B1 161 Centurion 142–45, 146, 154, 155, 157 Centurion AVRE 186–87 Centurion BARV 186 Centurion Mark 3, FV4007 237 Centurion Mark 13 148 Chaffee, M24 85, 146 Challenger 2, FV4034 218–19, 226, 227, 229 Challenger A30 95 Challenger ARRV (CRARRV) 187 Challenger II thermal insulation 239 Char B1 70–71, 74 Char léger Modèle 1936 FCM 71 Charioteer 158 Chevrolet engine, Crossley-Chevrolet Armoured Car 45 Chi-Ha, Type 97 72 Chieftain AVLB 187 Chieftain ARRV 187 Chieftain Mark 11 147, 157, 232 China Al-Khalid 220–21 Type 59 131 Type 63 132 Type 69 133 Type 89 173 Type 96 219 Type 99 220 YW 534 (Type 89) 173 YW701A 172–73 Chobham armour 129 M1 Abrams 140, 148–49 Christie, J. Walter 52–53, 102 Christie M1931 41, 57, 102 Christie suspension 235 Cruiser Mark III 92 Chrysler engine 233 M1A2 Abrams 222–25 M4 Sherman 86–89, 104–05 Sherman Firefly 95 Sherman V Crab 117 Churchill ARV 117 Churchill AVRE 117 Churchill Crocodile 116, 166 Churchill Mark I 93 Churchill Mark VI 94 clinometer, M18 Hellcat 115 cloaking systems 239 co-axial machine-gun M1A2 Abrams 225 M4 Sherman 89 Scorpion CVR(T) 194 T-34/85 101 co-driver’s machine-gun M3 Stuart 82, 83 M4 Sherman 88 T-34/85 100 Tiger 77 Cold War 128–95 anti-tank defences 184–85 armoured reconnaissance vehicles 168–69 Berlin brinkmanship and Checkpoint Charlie 138–39 Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked) family 188–89 Communist Bloc tanks 130–37 engineering and specialist vehicles 186–87 NATO Alliance tanks 146–49 tank destroyers 158–61 tanks of non-aligned world 154–59 tracked armoured personnel carriers 170–73 tracked infantry fighting vehicles 176–79 wheeled troop carriers 180–83 see also post-Cold War

INDEX . 249

Combat Car M1 47 Combat Engineer Tractors 184–85 Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance family, Cold War 188–89 Comet 53, 95 commander’s periscope M3 Stuart 82, 83 Scorpion CVR(T) 194 T-34/85 100 Tiger 76 commander’s position Centurion 144, 145 Cobra 164 Leopard 1 152, 153 M1A2 Abrams 224, 225 M3 Stuart 83 M4 Sherman 88 M18 Hellcat 114 Mark IV 20 Renault FT-17 27 Scorpion CVR(T) 195 T-34/85 100, 101 T-72 136 Tiger 76, 77 Vickers Light Tank Mark VIB 51 Vickers Medium Mark II 60 Common Remotely Operated Weapons Station sights, M1A2 Abrams 224 communication system control panel, Scorpion CVR(T) 195 Communist Bloc tanks, Cold War 130–37 competitions, army games 228–29 Continental engine Combat Car M1 47 M2A3 Light Tank 47 M3 Stuart 80–83 M4A1 (Sherman II) 84–85, 90–91 M41A1 Walker Bulldog 146 M47 Patton 146 M48 Patton 129, 147 M56 158 M60A1 RISE 146–47 M60A2 148–49 M75 170 M103A2 147 Magach 7C 157 Merkava 1 156 Namer 211 Ram 94 Ram Kangaroo troop carrier 125 Sho’t 154 Strv 104 156–57 Type 74 156 see also Wright Continental engine Cougar 160, 162–65 Cougar MRAP 141, 202 counter-insurgency vehicles, post-Cold War 200–03 Covenanter 53, 92 Crocodile, Churchill 116, 166 Cromwell A13 Cruiser tank 53 Cromwell IV 94–95 Crossley-Chevrolet Armoured Car 45 Cruiser, A9 71 Cruiser Mark I 40 Cruiser Mark III, A13 71 Crusader 53 Crusader III 92 CT15TA Armoured Truck 125 Cummins engine AAV7A1 173 BvS 10 Viking 211, 227 Eagle IV 140, 214 FV107 Scimitar Mark 2 189 FV4333 Stormer 189 M2 Bradley 178 Scorpion CVR(T) 192–95 Sherman M-50 154 CV90 226–27 Cymbeline Mortar Locating Radar, FV432 187 Czechoslovakia OT-64/ SKOT 181 Panzer 35(t) 67 Panzer 38(t) Ausf E 67, 106

DAF engine, YP-408 181 Daimler engine A7V Sturmpanzerwagen 23 Ehrhardt E-V/4 armoured car 35 Gun Carrier, Mark I 32 Little Willie 13, 14–15 Mark I 22–23, 28, 30–31, 32 Mark IV 13, 18–21, 22 Mother 13, 15 Daimler Mark II (Dingo) 123, 158, 168 Daimler-Benz engine Leichttraktor Vs.Kfz.31 40 Mamba 201 Spahpanzer 2 Luchs 169 Stridsvagn m/21 40 Dardo 210 DelaHaye engine, Marder I 106 Depanneur Char Leclerc 187 Detroit engine AIFV (Armoured Infantry Fighting Vehicle) 177 AMX VCI 170 ASLAV 212 Cougar 160, 162–65 LAV-25 140, 182, 212 Lynx Command and Reconnaissance Vehicle 169 M113 169, 170–71, 177, 186, 211, 226 Deutz engine BOV-M 183 Fennek 213 YW 534 (Type 89) 173 Dingo 2, FATF 214 Dorchester armour 218, 227 drive sprocket Centurion 144 Leopard 1 152 M1A2 Abrams 224 M3 Stuart 82 M4 Sherman 88 Renault FT-17 26 Tiger 77 Vickers Medium Mark II 60 driver’s periscope Centurion 144 Cougar 164 Leopard 1 152 M4 Sherman 88 Scorpion CVR(T) 194 T-72 137 driver’s position Buffel 206 Centurion 145 Cobra 164 Leopard 1 153 M1A2 Abrams 224, 225 M3 Stuart 82, 83 M4 Sherman 89 M18 Hellcat 115 Mark IV 20 Renault FT-17 26, 27 Scorpion CVR(T) 195 T-34/85 100, 101 T-72 137 Tiger 76, 77 Vickers Light Tank Mark VIB 51 Vickers Medium Mark II 60, 61 Duplex Drive amphibious vehicle, Valentine Mark IX 94

Eagle IV 140, 214 EE-9 Cascavel 160 Ehrhardt E-V/4 armoured car 35 engineering and specialist vehicles Cold War 186–87 World War II 116–17 Enigma, T-55AD 133 escape hatch, T-34/85 101

Excelsior 118 exhaust Centurion 144 Cougar 165 Renault FT-17 26 Scorpion CVR(T) 194 T-34/85 100 T-72 137 Vickers Medium Mark II 60 experiments interwar years 40–41 World War I 14–15, 32–33 World War II 118-19 Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD), Saracen Special Water Dispenser 200 Explosive Reactive Armour (ERA) 129 BMP-3 179 PT 91 Twardy 219 T-72M1 132–33 T-80 133

FATF Dingo 2 214 Fennek 213 Ferdinand 108 Ferret Mark 2/5, FV701(E) 168–69 Fiat 2000 33 FIAT engine, Izhorski FIAT armoured car 35 FIAT-Revelli guns, Lancia Ansaldo IZ armoured car 35 Fiefel air filter, Tiger 77 Finland, XA-185 212 fire extinguisher Centurion 144 Cobra 165 Leopard 1 153 M3 Stuart 82 Scorpion CVR(T) 194 T-34/85 101 Vickers Medium Mark II 61 first tank attack, Flers-Courcelette, World War I 13, 30–31 flail tank, Sherman V Crab 117 flame-thrower Churchill Crocodile 116 M67 “Zippo” 166–67 Valentine Mark IX 94 Flyer Advanced Light Strike Vehicle 140 Flying Elephant 29 “flying tank” 53, 78–79 FMC corporation, Lynx Command and Reconnaissance Vehicle 169 Force Protection 141 Ford 3 Ton Tank, M1918 33 Ford engine Bv206 173 Carden-Loyd Carrier Mark VI 46–47, 102 Infantry Tank Mark I A11 (Matilda I) 71 Leyland Armoured Car 45 M26 Pershing 85 M36 111 M1918 Ford 3 Ton Tank 33 Marmon-Herrington, Mark II armoured car 123 Marmon-Herrington, Mark IV armoured car 125 Praying Mantis troop carrier 124 Sherman, M4A3E8 (76) 85 T14 118 T28 119 Universal Carrier, Mark II 122–23 Foster Daimler tractor 28 Fosters 13, 28 Fox Armoured Car 125 FOX Combat Reconnaissance Vehicle, FV721 169 Foxhound 141, 203 France AMX 10P 177, 182 AMX-10RC 160–61, 190–91 AMX-13 147, 170

France (cont.) AMX-30B2 148 AMX VCI 170 Automitrailleuse de Découverte (AMD) Panhard modèle 1935 45 Char B1 70–71, 74 Cougar 160 Char léger Modèle 1936 FCM 71 Cougar MRAP 141, 202 first tank attack, Flers-Courcelette, World War I 13, 30–31 Leclerc 218 Panhard AML 159 Panhard M3 181 Panhard Véhicule Blindé Léger (VBL) 169 Peugeot modèle 1914 AC armoured car 34 Renault FT-17 13, 23, 24–27 St Chamond 22 Schneider CA-1 22 Schutzenpanzer (SPz) 11.2 168 SOMUA S35 70 UE Tankette 47 VBCI 214–15 Véhicule de l’Avant Blindé (VAB) 182–83 Freccia 215 fuel drum and filler M18 Hellcat 114 T-34/85 100 T-72 137 FV101 Scorpion 188 FV102 Striker 188, 241 FV103 Spartan 188 FV104 Samaritan 189 FV105 Sultan 188 FV106 Samson 189 FV107 Scimitar 188 FV107 Scimitar Mark 2 189 FV432 Bulldog 171 FV432 Cymbeline Mortar Locating Radar 187 FV603 Saracen 180 FV701(E) Ferret Mark 2/5 168–69 FV721 FOX Combat Reconnaissance Vehicle 169 FV4007 Centurion Mark 3 237 FV4034 Challenger 2 218–19, 226, 227, 229 FV4333 Stormer 189

GAZ engine BA-64 armoured car 123 BRDM 1 168 BRDM 2 168 BTR 70 181 BTR-60PA 181 SU-76M 110 T-37A amphibious tank 46 T-60 96 T-70 97 gear lever Buffel 207 Cobra 165 Leopard 1 153 M18 Hellcat 115 Mark IV 21 Renault FT-17 27 T-34/85 101 T-72 137 General Dynamics 140–41 General Motors engine 140 CT15TA Armoured Truck 125 Fox Armoured Car 125 M10 110 M50 Ontos 158 M59 170 M548 186 Sherman III Duplex Drive 117 Valentine Archer 111 Valentine Mark IX 94

250 . INDEX

General Motors engine (cont.) Valiant 119 Germany A7V Sturmpanzerwagen 23 badge 243 Berlin and Checkpoint Charlie 138–39 Boxer 215 Brummbar 107 Ehrhardt E-V/4 armoured car 35 FATF Dingo 2 214 Fennek 213 Ferdinand 108 Goliath tracked mine 116 Jagdpanther 109 Jagdpanzer 38(t) Hetzer 108–09 Jagdpanzer IV/70 108 Jagdtiger 109, 238 Kanonenjagdpanzer 159 Leichttraktor Vs.Kfz.31 40 Leopard 2A4 149, 227 Leopard 2A6 220–21 Leopard C2 148 Leopard 1 150–53, 162 Marder 1 177 Marder I 106 Marder II 106 Marder III 106 Marder III Ausf H 107 Marder III Ausf M 107 Minenwerfer 184 Nashorn (Hornisse) 108 Neubaufahrzeug 40 Panther 73 Panzer I Ausf A 66 Panzer I Command Tank 66 Panzer II 66–67, 69 Panzer III Ausf E 67, 166 Panzer III Ausf L 72, 166 Panzer IV Ausf F 67 Panzer IV Ausf H 72–73 Panzerjager I 106 Panzerkampfwagen Neubaufahrzeug 41 propaganda 12, 69, 75 Schutzenpanzer Lang 176 Schutzenpanzer Puma 211 Schutzenpanzer (SPz) 11.2 168 Sd Kfz 231 6 rad Armoured Car 44 Sd Kfz 231 Schwerer Panzerspahwagen 122 Sd Kfz 234/3 Schwerer Panzerspahwagen, 8-rad 125 Sd Kfz 251/8 Mittlere Krankenpanzerwagen Ausf C 122 Spahpanzer 2 Luchs 169 StuG III 106–07 StuG IV 108 Sturmtiger 109 Tiger 73, 74–77, 234, 238 Tiger II 73 Transportpanzer 1 Fuchs 182 Wiesel 161 World War II recruitment poster 65 GIAT guns AMX 10 RC 190–91 VBCI 214–15 “gill” armour, T-72 137 Goliath tracked mine 116 Grant, M3 84 Greyhound armoured car, M8 124 Grizzly armoured personnel carrier 162 grousers (track shoes) Leopard 1 152 T-34/85 100 Tiger 75 Guderian, Lieutenant Colonel Heinz 69 Guiberson engine, M3 Stuart 84 Gun Carrier, Mark I 32 gun cleaning rods Leopard 1 152 M18 Hellcat 114 gun elevation wheel M18 Hellcat 115 T-72 136 Vickers Medium Mark II 61 gun stabilization system, Leopard 1 153 gunner’s periscope Cougar 165

gunner’s periscope (cont.) M18 Hellcat 114 T-34/85 101 gunner’s position Centurion 144, 145 Cobra 164, 165 Leopard 1 153 M1A2 Abrams 225 M3 Stuart 83 Scorpion CVR(T) 195 T-34/85 100 T-72 136, 137 gunsight M4 Sherman 89 M18 Hellcat 114, 115 T-72 136

Ha-Go, Type 95 72 Haig, Field Marshal 30 Hamilcar Gliders 78–79 Harry Hopkins 94 Hawkins No. 75 grenade 240 headlamp see Lights, headlamp Heckler and Koch grenade launcher, Fennek 213 “helicoil” spring suspension, T3E2 52–53 Hellcat, M18 111, 112–15, 233 helmets 243 Hercules engine M3A1 armoured car 123 M8 Greyhound armoured car 124 High Explosive Squash Head (HESH) 142, 192, 237 High Velocity Armour Piercing (HVAP), M18 Hellcat 111, 112–15 high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) warheads, T-55AD defence 133, 237 Hispano-Suiza engine AMX 10P 177, 182 AMX-30B2 148 Hispano-Suiza guns Pbv 302 172 Schutzenpanzer Lang 176 Hobart, Percy 116 “Hobart’s Funnies” 116–17 Holt 75 Gun Tractor 15, 22, 23 Holt Company 28 “honey” (M3 Stuart nickname) 80–83 Hornet 159, 241 Hornet, Medium Mark C 29, 33 Hornisse (Nashorn) 108 Hornsby Tractor 14 Hortsmann suspension 49, 235 Light Tank Mark VIB 49 Hotchkiss engine, Schutzenpanzer (SPz) 11.2 168 Hotchkiss guns Austin Armoured Car 34 Automitrailleuse de Découverte (AMD) Panhard modèle 1935 45 Hornet (Medium Mark C) 29, 33 Mark I 22–23 Mark IV 13, 18–21, 22 Mark IX 32 Mark V 23, 28, 32 Mark VIII 32 Medium Mark A Whippet 23 Minerva Armoured Car 34 Peerless Armoured Car 44 Renault FT-17 13, 23, 24–27 Vickers Medium Mark II 58 Humber Hornet 159, 241 Humber “Pig” 200 “Hush Puppy” rubber blocked track, Centurion 143 Husky ARV 160, 162 Husky TSV 203 hybrid electric tank engine, BAE Systems 227 hydropneumatic suspension 235 K1 155 Piranha III 212–13

hydropneumatic suspension (cont.) Strv 103C, S-Tank 155 Type 74 154

IHC RED engine, M5 half-track armoured car 124–25 Ikv-91 160 Improvised Explosive Device (IED) 202 Independent, A1E1 40 Independent Thermal Viewer (CITV), M1A2 Abrams 218 India, Vijayanta 155 Infantry Tank Mark I A11 (Matilda I) 71 Infantry Tank Mark IIA A12 (Matilda II) 71, 74 infrared light see lights, infrared insignia Centurion 143 M3 Stuart 82 Renault FT-17 25 Scorpion CVR(T) 194 T-34/85 99, 100 Vickers Light Tank Mark VIB 50 see also badges; recognition symbol; tactical number instrument panel Buffel 206 T-34/85 101 Vickers Light Tank Mark VIB 51 interwar years 38–61 armoured cars 44–45 cavalry mechanization 42–43 experiments 40–41 light tanks and tankettes 46–47 medium and heavy tanks 56–57 Ireland, Leyland Armoured Car 45 IS-2 97, 103 IS-3M 97 Israel Magach 7C 157 Merkava 1 156, 238 Merkava IV 198 Merkava Mark 4 221 Namer 211 Sherman M-50 154 Sho’t 154 Italy Ariete 219 B1 Centauro 161 Dardo 210 Fiat 2000 33 Freccia 215 L3 Lf 166 Lancia Ansaldo IZ armoured car 35 M14/41 72 Puma (6x6) 213 Iveco engine Ariete 219 B1 Centauro 161 Dardo 210 Freccia 215 Puma (6x6) 213 Izhorski FIAT armoured car 35

Jagdpanther 109 Jagdpanzer 38(t) Hetzer 108–09 Jagdpanzer IV/70 108 Jagdtiger 109, 238 Jaguar engine FV101 Scorpion 188 FV102 Striker 188, 241 FV103 Spartan 188 FV104 Samaritan 189 FV105 Sultan 188 FV106 Samson 189 FV107 Scimitar 188 Scorpion CVR(T) 192

Japan Mitsubishi Type 10 221 Mitsubishi Type 90 218 SU60 171 tankettes 39 Type 61 154 Type 73 173 Type 74 156 Type 89 59, 179 Type 95 Ha-Go 72 Type 96 212 Type 97 Chi-Ha 72

K1 157 Kalashnikov, Mikhail 236 Kamaz engine, BTR-80 183 Kanonenjagdpanzer 159 Kevlar lining, M1A2 Abrams 225 Khalid 157 Kharkiv engine 102, 233 Al-Khalid 220–21 Iosif Stalin-2 (IS-2) 97 Kliment Voroshilov-1 (KV-1) 96 Kliment Voroshilov-2 (KV-2) 96 SU-100 111 SU-122 110 SU-152 111 T-10M 130 T-34 53, 96–97, 102–03 T-34/85 97, 98–101 Kodiak (LAV III) 140, 212 Komatsu engine, Type 96 212 Koshkin, Mikhail 98, 102–03 Kotin, S.J. 102 KPVT guns BRDM 2 168 BTR-80 183 Krauss-Maffei, Leopard 1 150–53, 162 Krupp, Leichttraktor Vs.Kfz.31 40 Krupp engine, Panzer I Ausf A 66 KV 102 KV-1 96 KV-2 96 KwK guns Leichttraktor Vs.Kfz.31 40 Panther 73 Panzer 35(t) 67 Panzer 38(t) Ausf E 67, 106 Panzer II 66–67, 69 Panzer III Ausf E 67 Panzer III Ausf L 72 Panzer IV Ausf F 67 Panzer IV Ausf H 72–73 Panzerkampfwagen Neubaufahrzeug 41 Sd Kfz 231 6 rad Armoured Car 44 Sd Kfz 231 Schwerer Panzerspahwagen 122 Sd Kfz 234/3 Schwerer Panzerspahwagen, 8-rad 125 Tiger 73, 74–77 Tiger II 73

L3 Lf 166 Lanchester Armoured Car 34–35, 44 Lancia Ansaldo IZ armoured car 35 Land Rover engine, Snatch Land Rover 201, 203 Land Systems 140, 226–27 LAV III (Kodiak) 140, 212 LAV-25 140, 182, 212 leaf spring suspension 52, 235 M14/41 72 Panzer 35(t) 67 Panzerjager I 106 Renault FT-17 25, 26 Vickers Mark E 55 Leclerc 218 Leichttraktor Vs.Kfz.31 40

INDEX . 251

Leonardo da Vinci 16–17 Leopard 2A4 149, 227 Leopard 2A6 220–21 Leopard C2 148 Leopard 1 150–53, 162 Lewis guns, Mark IV 18 Leyland Armoured Car 45 Leyland engine 232 Chieftain AVLB 187 Chieftain Mark 11 147, 157, 232 Vijayanta 155 Liberty engine Christie M1931 41, 57, 102 T3E2 52–53 light tanks and tankettes, interwar years 46–47 lights blackout light, Leopard 1 152 convoy light, T-72 136 manoeuvring light, Scorpion CVR(T) 194 searchlight, Centurion 144, 145 sidelight, Cougar 164 spotlight, M4 Sherman 89 lights, headlamp Buffel 206 Centurion 144 Cougar 164 Leopard 1 152 M4 Sherman 88 M18 Hellcat 114 T-72 136 Vickers Medium Mark II 60 lights, infrared Scorpion CVR(T) 194 T-72 136 lights, rear Buffel 207 Cougar 165 M3 Stuart 82 M18 Hellcat 114 T-72 137 Lima, M4 Sherman 88–89 Lincoln engine, Marmon-Herrington CTL-3 light tank 46 Little Willie 13, 14–15, 28 loader’s periscope, Centurion 144 loader’s position Leopard 1 153 M1A2 Abrams 224, 225 Tiger 76 Locust light tank 78–79 Lorraine tractor chassis, Marder I 106 Loyd, Vivian 55 Lutz, General Oswald 69 Lynx Command and Reconnaissance Vehicle 169

M1 Abrams 140, 141, 148–49, 157, 199, 208–09, 216–17, 234, 238 M1A2 Abrams 218, 222–25 M2 Bradley 178, 208–09, 226 M2A1 Medium 57 M2A3 Light Tank 47 M3 Grant 84 M3A1 armoured car 123 M3 Stuart 80–83, 84 M4 Sherman 86–89, 104–05, 230–31, 233 M4A1 Sherman II 84–85, 90–91 M5 80 M5 half-track armoured car 124–25 M5A1 Stuart VI 84 M8 Greyhound armoured car 124 M10 110 M10 Achilles 241 M14/41 72 M18 Hellcat 111, 112–15, 233 M24 Chaffee 85, 146 M26 Pershing 85 M36 111 M41A1 Walker Bulldog 146 M47 Patton 146

M48 138–39, 157 M48 Patton 129, 147 M50 Ontos 158 M56 158 M56 Scorpion 241 M59 170 M60 Patton Main Battle Tank 140, 157 M60A1 RISE 146–47 M60A2 148–49 M67 “Zippo” 166–67 M75 170 M103A2 147 M113 169, 170–71, 177, 186, 211, 226 M548 186 M1128 Mobile Gun System 141 M1918 Ford 3 Ton Tank 33 M1931 Christie 41, 57, 102 Madsen guns Leyland Armoured Car 45 Pansarbil m/40 (Lynx) 45 Magach 7C 157 Magirus engine, Sd Kfz 231 6 rad Armoured Car 44 main gun breech Centurion 145 Cobra 165 M1A2 Abrams 225 M4 Sherman 89 M18 Hellcat 115 Scorpion CVR(T) 195 T-34/85 101 T-72 136 main gun development 236–37 Malkara anti-tank missiles 241 Hornet 159 Mamba 201 Marder 1 177 Marder I 106 Marder II 106 Marder III 106 Marder III Ausf H 107 Marder III Ausf M 107 Mark I 22–23, 28, 30–31, 32 Mark II Medium 102 Mark IV 13, 18–21, 22, 28, 231, 234 Mark V 23, 28, 32, 233 Mark VIB 238 Mark VIII 32 Mark IX 32 Marmon-Herrington CTL-3 light tank 46 Mark II armoured car 123 Mark IV armoured car 125 Martel, Major Gifford 40 Mastiff 202–03 Matilda Canal Defence Light (CDL) 116 Matilda I (Infantry Tank Mark I A11) 71 Matilda II (Infantry Tank Mark IIA A12) 71, 74 Mauser T-Gewehr M1918 anti-tank weapon 240 Maxim-Nordenfelt gun, A7V Sturmpanzerwagen 23 MaxxForce engine, Husky TSV 203 MaxxPro 203 Maybach engine Brummbar 107 Ferdinand 108 Jagdpanther 109 Jagdpanzer IV/70 108 Jagdtiger 109 Marder II 106 Nashorn (Hornisse) 108 Panther 73 Panzer I Command Tank 66 Panzer II 66–67, 69 Panzer III Ausf E 67 Panzer III Ausf L 72 Panzer IV Ausf F 67 Panzer IV Ausf H 72–73 Panzerjager I 106 Sd Kfz 251/8 Mittlere Krankenpanzerwagen Ausf C 122 Stridsvagn fm/31 41 StuG III 106–07 StuG IV 108 Sturmtiger 109

Maybach engine (cont.) Tiger 73, 74–77 Tiger II 73 Meadows engine Amphibious Light Tank 41 Covenanter 53, 92 Harry Hopkins 94 Tetrarch 92 Vickers Light Tank Mark VIB 47, 48–51 Medium Mark A Whippet (Tritton Chaser) 23, 28–29 Medium Mark C Hornet 29, 33 Melara guns Ariete 219 B1 Centauro 161 Mercedes-Benz engine Buffel 200, 204–07 Casspir 200–01 EE-9 Cascavel 160 FATF Dingo 2 214 Kanonenjagdpanzer 159 Transportpanzer 1 Fuchs 182 Merkava 1 156, 238 Merkava IV 198 Merkava Mark 4 221 Meteor engine Cavalier 93 Centaur IV (Close Support) 93 Mgebrov-Renault armoured car 35 Mikulin engine BT-7 57 T-28 56 T-35 57 MILAN anti-tank missile 177 military supremacy depiction 216–17 Minenwerfer 184 Minerva Armoured Car 34 mines anti-tank 184 Mine-Resistant Ambush Protected (MRAP) vehicle programme 202, 204, 226 protection against 200 Mitsubishi engine SU60 171 Type 61 154 Type 73 173 Type 89 59, 179 Type 95 Ha-Go 72 Type 97 Chi-Ha 72 Mitsubishi Type 10 221 Mitsubishi Type 90 218 Morris-Martel 40 Mother (Big Willie) 13, 15, 28, 29 MOWAG 140, 160, 162, 182 MT-LB 186–87 MTU engine Ajax 141, 211 ASCOD Infantry Fighting Vehicle 210 Boxer 215 Depanneur Char Leclerc 187 K1 157 Leopard 2A4 149, 227 Leopard 2A6 220–21 Leopard C2 148 Leopard 1 150–53, 162 Marder 1 177 Merkava Mark 4 221 Otokar Altay 221 Panzer 61 155 Panzer 68 156 Schutzenpanzer Puma 211

Namer 211 Nashorn (Hornisse) 108 NATO Alliance tanks, Cold War 146–49 Navistar International, MaxxPro 203 Netherlands Boxer 215 Fennek 213

Netherlands (cont.) German World War II recruitment poster 65 YP-408 181 Neubaufahrzeug 40 Nexter guns, AMX 10P 177, 182 non-aligned world tanks, Cold War 154–59 Norinco engine, Type 96, China 219 Nuclear Biological Chemical (NBC) system M1A2 Abrams 224 Merkava Mark 4 221 T-55 130–31 Nuffield Liberty engine A13 Cruiser Mark III 71 Cavalier 93 Centaur IV (Close Support) 93 Crusader III 92

Ocelot 141 Oerlikon guns AIFV (Armoured Infantry Fighting Vehicle) 177 Dardo 210 Freccia 215 Type 89 179 Ontos, M50 158 Oshkosh M-ATV 203 OT-64/ SKOT 181 Otokar Altay 221

Pakistan, Al-Khalid 220–21 Pandur Armoured Fighting Vehicle 140 Pandur I 212 Panhard AML 159 Panhard engine Automitrailleuse de Découverte (AMD) Panhard modèle 1935 45 St Chamond 22 Panhard M3 181 Panhard Véhicule Blindé Léger (VBL) 169 Pansarbil m/40 (Lynx) 45 Panther 73 Panzer 35(t) 67 Panzer 38(t) Ausf E 67, 106 Panzer 61 155 Panzer 68 156 Panzer I Ausf A 66 Panzer I Command Tank 66 Panzer II 66–67, 69 Panzer III Ausf E 67, 166 Panzer III Ausf L 72, 166 Panzer IV Ausf F 67 Panzer IV Ausf H 72–73 Panzerfaust grenade 240 Panzerjager I 106 Panzerkampfwagen Neubaufahrzeug 41 Patton, M47 146 Patton, M48 129, 147 Patton, M60 Main Battle Tank 140, 157 Paxman Ricardo engine, TOG II 118 Pbv 302 172 peacetime uses 120–21 Pedrail Machine 14 Peerless Armoured Car 44 Pegaso 140 Pegaso engine, Blindado Medio de Ruedas (BMR) 600 182 Perkins engine Challenger ARRV (CRARRV) 187 FV4034 Challenger 2 218–19 Khalid 157 Warrior 178–79 Pershing, M26 85

252 . INDEX

Peugeot engine, Panhard Véhicule Blindé Léger (VBL) 169 Peugeot modèle 1914 AC armoured car 34 Piranha 140–41 Piranha III 212–13 Pizarro Infantry Fighting Vehicle 140 PKT machine-gun 236 MT-LB 186–87 PL-01 239 Poland 7TP 70 national emblem, T-72 136 OT-64/ SKOT 181 PL-01 239 PT 91 Twardy 219 post-Cold War 198–227 counter-insurgency vehicles 200–03 tank deployment logistics 208–09 tanks 218–21 technological developments 199 tracked troop carriers 210–11 wheeled troop carriers 212–15 see also Cold War Praga engine Jagdpanzer 38(t) Hetzer 108–09 Marder III 106 Marder III Ausf H 107 Marder III Ausf M 107 Panzer 38(t) Ausf E 67, 106 prayer before battle 104–05 Praying Mantis troop carrier 124 Projector, Infantry, Anti-Tank (PIAT) 240 propaganda Germany 12, 69, 75 Soviet Union 128 PT 91 Twardy 219 PT-76 130, 170 Puma (6x6) 213 Puteaux guns Char léger Modèle 1935 R (Renault R35) 70 Char léger Modèle 1936 FCM 71 Renault FT-17 13, 23, 24–27 PZL-Wola engine, PT 91 Twardy 219

radiation-absorbent coating 239 radio equipment Centurion 145 M18 Hellcat 115 Scorpion CVR(T) 195 Sd Kfz 231 Schwerer Panzerspahwagen 122 T-34/85 101 Ram 94 Ram Kangaroo troop carrier 125 RARDEN guns, FV107 Scimitar Mark 2 189 Ratel 20 182 rear light see lights, rear recognition symbol Allied Forces 88, 114 Cougar 163 Leopard 1 152 Tiger 76 see also badges; insignia; tactical number reconnaissance vehicle, M3 Stuart 81 Renault engine AMX-10RC 160–61, 190–91 Char B1 bis 70–71, 74 Mgebrov-Renault armoured car 35 UE Tankette 47 Véhicule de l’Avant Blindé (VAB) 182–83 Renault FT-17 13, 23, 24–27 Renault R35 (Char léger Modèle 1935 R) 70 Rheinmetall, Leichttraktor Vs.Kfz.31 40 Rheinmetall guns Kanonenjagdpanzer 159 Leopard 2A4 149 Leopard 2A6 220, 220–21

Rheinmetall guns (cont.) Marder 1 177 Spahpanzer 2 Luchs 169 Ricardo engine 233 Hornet (Medium Mark C) 29, 33 Mark V 23, 28, 32, 233 Mark VIII 32 Mark IX 32 RISE, M60A1 146–47 RKG-3 grenade 240 road wheels see wheels, road Roberts, David 28 Rolls-Royce Armoured Car 44–45 Rolls-Royce engine Centurion 142–45, 146, 154, 155, 157 Centurion Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers (AVRE) 186–87 Centurion BARV 186 Centurion Mark 12 148 Challenger A30 95 Charioteer 158 Comet 53, 95 Cromwell IV 94–95 Excelsior 118 FV432 Bulldog 171 FV432 Cymbeline Mortar Locating Radar 187 FV603 Saracen 180 FV701(E) Ferret Mark 2/5 168–69 Hornet 159 Humber “Pig” 200 Pedrail Machine 14 Saladin 158–59 Saracen Special Water Dispenser 200 Schutzenpanzer Lang 176 Tortoise 118–19 Vickers Light Tank Mark IIA 46 Rooikat 161 Rover engine, Shorland Mark 1 200 Royal Ordnance Factory 142, 226 RPG-7 anti-tank weapon 240 Russia BMD-4M Airborne Assault Vehicle 211 Izhorski FIAT armoured car 35 Mgebrov-Renault armoured car 35 T-14 Armata 221 T-35 40 T-90S 219 Tank Biathlon 229 Tsar Tank 14 see also Soviet Union

“Sabot” barbed wire crusher, Schneider CA-1 22 Sabre 169 St Chamond 22 Saladin 158–59, 226 Samaritan, FV104 189 Samson, FV106 189 Santa Bárbara Sistemas, Land Systems acquisition 140 Saracen, FV603 180 Saracen Special Water Dispenser 200 Saurer engine 7TP 70 Char léger Modèle 1936 FCM 71 Saxon, AT 105 183 Scania engine, Stridsfordon 90 210–11 Scania-Vabis engine Strv 74 154 Strv m/40L 57 Schneider CA-1 22 Schutzenpanzer Lang 176 Schutzenpanzer Puma 211 Schutzenpanzer (SPz) 11.2 168 Scimitar, FV107 188 Scimitar Mark 2, FV107 189 Scissors Bridge 116–17 Scorpion 162, 169 Scorpion CVR(T) 192–95 Scorpion, FV101 188

Scorpion, M56 241 Scout SV (Specialist Vehicle) 140 SCR 508 radio set, M4 Sherman 88–89 Sd Kfz 231 6 rad Armoured Car 44 Sd Kfz 231 Schwerer Panzerspahwagen 122 Sd Kfz 234/3 Schwerer Panzerspahwagen, 8-rad 125 Sd Kfz 251/8 Mittlere Krankenpanzerwagen Ausf C 122 Sd.Kfz 302/303 Goliath anti-tank weapon 241 Sentinel 93 shell sizes 237 Sherman Firefly 95 Sherman II, M4A1 84–85, 90–91 Sherman III Duplex Drive 117 Sherman M-50 154 Sherman, M4 86–89, 104–05, 230–31, 233 Sherman V Crab 117 Shorland Mark 1 200 Sho’t 154 Shtora Active Protection system (APS), T-90S 219 Singapore, Terrex ICV 215 SK-105 Kurassier 160 Skeleton Tank 33 Skoda engine, Panzer 35(t) 67 smoke grenades 239 Centurion 144 Cougar 165 Leopard 1 152 Scorpion CVR(T) 194 Tiger 76 Vickers Light Tank Mark VIB 50 Snatch Land Rover 141, 201, 203 Sofam engine, AMX-13 147, 170 Solar Shield camouflage, FV4034 Challenger 2 218 SOMUA S35 70 South Africa Buffel 200, 204–07 Casspir 200–01 Mamba 201 Marmon-Herrington, Mark II armoured car 123 Marmon-Herrington, Mark IV armoured car 125 Ratel 20 182 Rooikat 161 South Korea, K1 157 Soviet Union ASU-85 159 BA-64 armoured car 123 badge 243 BMD-1 176 BMD-2 178 BMD-3 179 BMP-1 176–77 BMP-2 177 BMP-3 179 BRDM 1 168 BRDM 2 168 BT-7 57 BTR 70 181 BTR-40 180 BTR-50P 170 BTR-60PA 181 BTR-80 183 BTR-152 180–81 Communist Bloc tanks, Cold War 130–37 helmet 243 Iosif Stalin-2 (IS-2) 97 Iosif Stalin-3M (IS-3M) 97 IS-2 103 KV 102 KV-1 96 KV-2 96 MT-LB 186–87 propaganda poster 128 PT-76 130, 170 SU-76M 110 SU-100 111 SU-122 110 SU-152 111

Soviet Union (cont.) T-10M 130 T-26 55, 56, 166 T-28 56 T-34 53, 96–97, 102–03, 233 T-34 tankman’s kit 242 T-34/85 97, 98–101 T-35 57 T-37A amphibious tank 46 T-54 130 T-55 130–31, 138–39 T-55AD (Enigma) 133 T-60 96 T-64B 132 T-70 97 T-72 134–37, 174–75 T-72M1 132–33 T-80 133 see also Russia SPA engine, M14/41 72 Spahpanzer 2 Luchs 169 Spain ASCOD Infantry Fighting Vehicle 210 Blindado Medio de Ruedas (BMR) 600 182 Nationalist poster 39 Pizarro Infantry Fighting Vehicle 140 Spartan, FV103 188 Spike anti-tank missiles 210 Starstreak surface-to-air missile launcher, FV4333 Stormer 189 steering Cobra 165 Mark IV 21 Scorpion CVR(T) 195 T-72 137 Steyr engine Pandur I 212 SK-105 Kurassier 160 Steyr-Daimler-Puch 140 engine, Foxhound 141, 203 Stormer, FV4333 189 Stridsfordon 90 210–11, 226–27 Stridsvagn fm/31 41 Stridsvagn m/21 40 Striker, FV102 188, 241 Strv 74 154 Strv 103C 154–55 Strv 104 156–57 Strv m/40L 57 Stryker 140–41, 212 Stuart, M3 80–83, 84 Stuart, M5A1 84 StuG III 106–07 StuG IV 108 Sturmpanzerwagen, A7V 23 Sturmtiger 109 SU-76M 110 SU-100 111 SU-122 110 SU-152 111 SU60 171 Sultan, FV105 188 Sunbeam engine, Tsar Tank 14 suspension 235 Buffel 207 Christie see Christie suspension Cougar 165 “helicoil” spring suspension, T3E2 52–53 Hortsmann see Hortsmann suspension hydropneumatic see hydropneumatic suspension leaf spring see leaf spring suspension M3 Stuart 82 torsion bar see torsion bar suspension volute spring see volute spring suspension Sweden Bv206 173 BvS 10 Viking 211, 227 Ikv-91 160 Pansarbil m/40 (Lynx) 45 Pbv 302 172 Stridsfordon 90 210–11, 226–27 Stridsvagn fm/31 41

INDEX . 253

Sweden (cont.) Stridsvagn m/21 40 Strv 74 154 Strv 103C, S-Tank 154–55 Strv 104 156–57 Strv m/40L 57 Swingfire anti-tank guided missile, FV102 Striker 188, 241 Switzerland Eagle IV 140, 214 Panzer 61 155 Panzer 68 156 Piranha III 212–13

T-10M 130 T-14 Armata 221 T-26 55, 56, 166 T-28 56 T-34 53, 96–97, 102–03, 233 T-34 tankman’s kit 242 T-34/85 97, 98–101 T-35 40, 57 T-37A amphibious tank 46 T-54 130 T-55 130–31, 138–39 T-55AD Enigma 133 T-60 96 T-64B 132 T-70 97 T-72 134–37, 174–75 T-72M1 132–33 T-80 133 T-90S 219 T3E2 52 T14 118 T28 119 tactical number Cougar 164 Mark IV 19, 20 Tiger 75 see also badges; insignia; recognition symbol tank deployment logistics, post-Cold War 208–09 tank destroyers Cold War 158–61 World War II 106–11 tank engines 232–33 tank evolution 230–31 tankettes and light tanks, interwar years 46–47 Tatra engine OT-64/ SKOT 181 Sd Kfz 234/3 Schwerer Panzerspahwagen, 8-rad 125 telephone Centurion 144 M1A2 Abrams 224 Tellermine 35 240 Terrex ICV 215 Terrier tractor 226, 227 Tetrarch 92 Tetrarch Light Tanks 78 Textron Lycoming engine M1 Abrams 140, 148–49, 157 M1A2 Abrams 218 thermal system M1A2 Abrams 224 T-72M1 132–33 Tiger 73, 74–77, 234, 238 Tiger II 73 TOG II 118 Tokarev TT Model 1933 242 toolbox M3 Stuart 82 Scorpion CVR(T) 194 torsion bar suspension 235 Jagdtiger 107 Leopard 1 151 M18 Hellcat 111, 113 M24 Chaffee 85 M26 Pershing 85

torsion bar suspension (cont.) StuG III 106–07 T-54 130 Tiger 77 Type 59 131 Tortoise 118–19 TOW anti-tank missiles 141, 159, 161, 178, 210 towing mechanism Buffel 206, 207 M1A2 Abrams 224 M4 Sherman 88 Mark IV 21 Renault FT-17 26 Tiger 77 tracked armoured personnel carriers, Cold War 170–73 tracked infantry fighting vehicles, Cold War 176–79 tracked troop carriers, post-Cold War 210–11 tracks 234 grousers see grousers Leopard 1 152 M1 Abrams 234 M3 Stuart 82 Mark IV 20, 21, 234 PzKpfw IV Tiger 234 Scorpion CVR(T) 194 T-72 137 Tiger 77 Vickers Medium Mark II 60, 234 Transportpanzer 1 Fuchs 182 travel indicator M3 Stuart 83 M18 Hellcat 115 trench crossing 28 Renault FT-17 13, 23 Skeleton Tank 33 trench mortars 184 Tritton, William 14, 28–29, 33 Trophy APS Merkava Mark 4 221 Namer 211 Tsar Tank 14 Turkey, Otokar Altay 221 turrets Cobra 165 M3 Stuart 82, 83 M4 Sherman 89 Renault FT-17 27 Scorpion CVR(T) 195 T-34/85 101 Tiger 76, 77 “upturned soup-bowl”, Iosif Stalin-3M (IS-3M) 97 Vickers Light Tank Mark VIB 51 Vickers Medium Mark II 61 TUSK (Tank Urban Survival Kit), M1A2 Abrams 222 Twardy, PT91 219 Tylor engine, Medium Mark A Whippet 23, 28–29 Type 59 131 Type 61 154 Type 63 132 Type 69 133 Type 73 173 Type 74 156 Type 89 China 173 Japan 59, 179 Type 95 Ha-Go 72 Type 96 China 219 Japan 212 Type 97 Chi-Ha 72 Type 99 220

UE Tankette 47 UK A1E1 Independent 40

UK (cont.) A9 Cruiser 71 A13 Cruiser Mark III 71 Achilles, M10 241 Ajax 141, 211 Allied recognition mark, Medium Mark A Whippet 23 Amphibious Light Tank 41 AT 105 Saxon 183 Austin Armoured Car 34 badge 243 Black Prince 119 Bulldog, FV432 171 Carden-Loyd Carrier Mark VI 46–47, 102 Cavalier 93 Centaur IV (Close Support) 93 Centurion 142–45, 146, 154, 155, 157 Centurion AVRE 186–87 Centurion BARV 186 Centurion Mark 3, FV4007 237 Centurion Mark 13 148 Challenger 2, FV4034 218–19, 226, 227, 229 Challenger A30 95 Challenger ARRV (CRARRV) 187 Challenger II thermal insulation 239 Charioteer 158 Chieftain AVLB 187 Chieftain ARRV 187 Chieftain Mark 11 147, 157, 232 Chobham armour 129 Churchill ARV 117 Churchill AVRE 117 Churchill Crocodile 116, 166 Churchill Mark I 93 Churchill Mark VI 94 Combat Engineer Tractors 184–85 Comet 53, 95 Covenanter 53, 92 Cromwell A13 Cruiser tank 53 Cromwell IV 94–95 Crossley-Chevrolet Armoured Car 45 Cruiser Mark I 40 Crusader 53 Crusader III 92 CV90 226–27 Cymbeline Mortar Locating Radar, FV432 187 Daimler Mark II (Dingo) 123, 158, 168 Excelsior 118 Experimental Mechanised Force 39, 40, 58 Ferret Mark 2/5, FV701(E) 168–69 Flying Elephant 29 FOX Combat Reconnaissance Vehicle, FV721 169 Foxhound 141, 203 Grant, M3 84 Gun Carrier, Mark I 32 Hamilcar Gliders 78–79 Harry Hopkins 94 Hornet 159, 241 Hornet (Medium Mark C) 29, 33 Hornsby Tractor 14 Humber Hornet 159, 241 Humber “Pig” 200 Infantry Tank Mark I A11 (Matilda I) 71 Infantry Tank Mark IIA A12 (Matilda II) 71, 74 Khalid 157 Lanchester Armoured Car 34–35, 44 Landships Committee 28 Little Willie 13, 14–15, 28 M5 80 Mark I 22–23, 28, 30–31, 32 Mark II Medium 102 Mark IV 13, 18–21, 22, 28, 231, 234 Mark V 23, 28, 32, 233 Mark VIB 238 Mark VIII 32 Mark IX 32 Mastiff 202–03 Matilda Canal Defence Light (CDL) 116 modern helmet 243 Morris-Martel 40

UK (cont.) Mother (Big Willie) 13, 15, 28, 29 Pedrail Machine 14 Peerless Armoured Car 44 Praying Mantis troop carrier 124 Rolls-Royce Armoured Car 44–45 Sabre 169 Saladin 158–59, 226 Samaritan, FV104 189 Samson, FV106 189 Saracen, FV603 180 Saracen Special Water Dispenser 200 Scimitar, FV107 188 Scimitar Mark 2, FV107 189 Scorpion 162, 169 Scorpion CVR(T) 192–95 Scorpion, FV101 188 Scout SV (Specialist Vehicle) 140 Sherman Firefly 95 Shorland Mark 1 200 Snatch Land Rover 141, 201, 203 Spartan, FV103 188 Stormer, FV4333 189 Striker, FV102 188, 241 Stuart, M3 80–83 Sultan, FV105 188 Terrier tractor 226, 227 Tetrarch 92 Tetrarch Light Tanks 78 TOG II 118 Tortoise 118–19 Universal Carrier, Mark II 122–23 Valentine Archer 111 Valentine Bridgelayer 116–17 Valentine Mark II 92–93 Valentine Mark IX 94 Valiant 119 Vickers Light Tank Mark IIA 46 Vickers Light Tank Mark VIB 47 Vickers Mark E (6-Ton Tank) 54–55, 56–57 Vickers Medium Mark II 56, 58–61, 234 Warrior 178–79 Wasp 166 Whale Island, Portsmouth 19 Whippet, Medium Mark A 23, 28–29 World War I helmet 243 Ulan 140, 210 uniforms 242–43 Universal Carrier 78 Mark II 122–23 USA AAV7A1 173 Abrams, M1 140, 148–49, 157, 199, 208– 09, 216–17, 234, 238 Abrams, M1A2 218, 222–25 AIFV (Armoured Infantry Fighting Vehicle) 177 badge 243 Bradley, M2 178, 208–09, 226 Buffalo 202 Caiman MRAP 226 Chaffee, M24 85, 146 Christie M1931 41, 57, 102 Combat Car M1 47 Flyer Advanced Light Strike Vehicle 140 Ford 3 Ton Tank, M1918 33 Grant, M3 84 Greyhound armoured car, M8 124 Hellcat, M18 111, 112–15, 233 Holt 75 Gun Tractor 15, 22, 23 Husky TSV 203 LAV-25 140, 182, 212 Locust light tank 78–79 Lynx Command and Reconnaissance Vehicle 169 M2A1 Medium 57 M2A3 Light Tank 47 M3 Grant 84 M3A1 armoured car 123 M3 Stuart 80–83, 84 M4 Sherman 86–89 M5A1 Stuart 80 M5 half-track armoured car 124–25 M10 110 M36 111

USA (cont.) M48 138–39, 157 M56 158 M56 Scorpion 241 M59 170 M60 Patton Main Battle Tank 140, 157 M60A1 RISE 146–47 M60A2 148–49 M75 170 M103A2 147 M113 169, 170–71, 177, 186, 211, 226 M548 186 Mark VIII 32 Marmon-Herrington CTL-3 light tank 46 MaxxPro 203 Military Assistance Program 146 Mine-Resistant Ambush Protected (MRAP) vehicle programme 202, 203 modern helmet 243 Ocelot 141 Ontos, M50 158 Oshkosh M-ATV 203 Patton, M47 146 Patton, M48 129, 147 Patton Main Battle Tank, M60 140, 157 Pershing, M26 85 prayer before battle 104–05 RISE, M60A1 146–47 Scorpion, M56 241 Sherman II, M4A1 84–85, 90–91 Sherman III Duplex Drive 117 Sherman, M4 86–89, 104–05, 230–31, 233 Sherman V Crab 117 Skeleton Tank 33 Stryker 140–41, 212 Stuart, M3 80–83, 84 Stuart, M5A1 84 T3E2 52–53 T14 118 T28 119 Walker Bulldog, M41A1 146 World War II helmet 243 “Zippo”, M67 166–67 UTD engine BMD-4M Airborne Assault Vehicle 211 BMP-1 176–77 BMP-2 177 BMP-3 179

Valentine Archer 111 Valentine Bridgelayer 116–17 Valentine Mark II 92–93 Valentine Mark IX 94 Valiant 119 Valmet engine, XA-185 212 VBCI 214–15 Véhicule de l’Avant Blindé (VAB) 182–83 vehicle identification mark, Vickers Medium Mark II 59 vehicle name M3 Stuart 81 Scorpion CVR(T) 193 vehicle serial number M3 Stuart 81 M4 Sherman 87 Mark IV 19 Renault FT-17 26 Vertical Volute Suspension System (VVSS) Combat Car M1 47 M3 Grant 84 Vickers guns .303in Mark VI machine-gun 236 Amphibious Light Tank 41 Carden-Loyd Carrier Mark VI 46–47, 102 Crossley-Chevrolet Armoured Car 45 Infantry Tank Mark I A11 (Matilda I) 71 Lanchester Armoured Car 34–35, 44 Mark I 22–23 Morris-Martel 40 Rolls-Royce Armoured Car 44–45 Vickers Light Tank 41, 42–43 Vickers Light Tank Mark IIA 46 Vickers Light Tank Mark VIB 47, 48–51 Vickers Mark E (6-Ton Tank) 54–55, 56–57 Vickers Medium Mark II 56, 58–61, 234 Vickers-Armstrong 48, 142 Vijayanta 155 Viking, BvS 10 211, 227 vision ports Mark IV 21 Renault FT-17 27 Vickers Light Tank Mark VIB 50, 51

vision ports (cont.) Vickers Medium Mark II 60 volute spring suspension 235 Combat Car M1 47 M3 Grant 84 M3 Stuart 81 M4A3E8 (76) (Sherman) 85 M10 110 T28 119 Volvo engine Ikv-91 160 Pansarbil m/40 (Lynx) 45 Pbv 302 172 VBCI 214–15

Walker Bulldog, M41A1 146 Warrior 178–79 Wartsila engine, Leclerc 218 Wasp 166 water cannon, Saracen Special Water Dispenser 200 water tap, Buffel 207 weight indicator, Vickers Light Tank Mark VIB 49 wheeled troop carriers Cold War 180–83 post-Cold War 212–15 wheeled versus tracked vehicles 190–91 wheels, road M1A2 Abrams 224 paired road wheels, M4 Sherman 89 T-34/85 100 Tiger 75, 77 tyres, Buffel 207 Vickers Light Tank Mark VIB 50 Whippet, Medium Mark A 23, 28–29 Wiesel 161 Wilson, Walter 28, 29, 33 World War I 14–35 armoured cars 34–35 experiments 14–15, 32–33 first tank attack, Flers-Courcelette 13, 30–31 German propaganda poster 12 helmet 243

World War I (cont.) post-war tank design 32–33 Tritton and Wilson posters 29 World War II 64–125, 166 armoured cars and troop carriers 122–25 engineering and specialist vehicles 116–17 experimental vehicles 118–19 Fler, Normandy liberation 120–21 helmet 243 tank destroyers 106–11 UK and Commonwealth tanks 92–95 uniforms 243 Wright Continental engine 233 M2A1 Medium 57 M3 Grant 84 M18 Hellcat 111, 112–15, 233 see also Continental engine

XA-185 212

YaMZ engine, MT-LB 186–87 YP-408 181 Yugoslavia, BOV-M 183 YW 534 (Type 89) 173 YW701A 172–73

“Zippo”, M67 166–67 ZiS guns SU-76M 110 ZiS-2 anti-tank weapon 240 Zundapp engine, Goliath tracked mine 116

255 . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Acknowledgments PICTURE CREDITS The publisher would like to thank the following for their kind permission to reproduce their photographs: (Key: a-above; b-below/bottom; c-centre; f-far; l-left; r-right; t-top) 12 Alamy Stock Photo: INTERFOTO.13 akg images:arkivi (ca).Alamy Stock Photo:Universal Art Archive (br).14 AF Fotografie. Alamy Stock Photo:Chronicle (clb); Private Collection / AF Eisenbahn Archiv (cla).14-15 Bovington Tank Museum. 15 Bovington Tank Museum. Dorling Kindersley:Gary Ombler / Paul Rackham (c).16-17 Getty Images:De Agostini.18 Bovington Tank Museum. 19 Dorling Kindersley:Gary Ombler / Board of the Trustees of the Royal Armouries (tl).22-23 Dorling Kindersley:The Tank Museum / Gary Ombler (b).22 Bovington Tank Museum. Olivier Cabaret:Le Musée des Blindés de Saumur (cl).23 Bovington Tank Museum. Dorling Kindersley:The Tank Museum / Gary Ombler (cla).24 akg-images:(tl).28 Alamy Stock Photo:Chronicle (bl).Bovington Tank Museum. Richard Pullen:(cl).29 Alamy Stock Photo:AF Fotografie (fcla); Paris Pearce (cla).Bovington Tank Museum. Richard Pullen. 30-31 Bovington Tank Museum. 32 Bovington Tank Museum. 33 Alamy Stock Photo:Chronicle (cr).Bovington Tank Museum. Narayan Sengupta:(cl).34 Alamy Stock Photo:Sunpix travel (br).Rex by Shutterstock:Roger Viollet (tr). 35 akg-images:ullstein bild (crb).Bovington Tank Museum. 38 Alamy Stock Photo:World History Archive.39 Bridgeman Images:Private Collection / Peter Newark Military Pictures (tc).Getty Images:Ullstein Bild (br).40 AF Fotografie. Alamy Stock Photo:Universal Art Archive (bl).Bovington Tank Museum. Gunnar Österlund:(tr).41 Alamy Stock Photo:Uber Bilder (cl).Paul Appleyard. Massimo Foti. Chris Neel:(tr).42-43 Bovington Tank Museum. 44 Paul Appleyard. Dorling Kindersley:Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (c).Militaryfoto. sk:Andrej Jerguš (br).45 Alamy Stock Photo:PAF (cla).Arsenalen, The Swedish Tank Museum: (cra).Bovington Tank Museum. 46 Bovington Tank Museum. Alex Malev:(bl).47 Cody Images: (cr).Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.:Harris & Ewing, Inc. 1955. (tr).48 Bovington Tank Museum. 52 AF Fotografie. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.:Prints and Photographs Division (bl, fcr).53 AF Fotografie. Alamy

Stock Photo:Lebrecht Music and Arts Photo Library (tl); World History Archive (b).54-55 Getty Images:John Phillips / The LIFE Picture Collection.56 Cody Images. 57 Alamy Stock Photo:ITAR-TASS Photo Agency (cra); Alexander Perepelitsyn (tl).Cody Images. Dorling Kindersley:Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (br).58 Bovington Tank Museum. 59 National Army Museum:(cr). 64 AF Fotografie.65 akgimages:Sputnik (br).Alamy Stock Photo:Universal Art Archive (c).66 Dorling Kindersley:Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (cl).Massimo Foti. 66-67 Dorling Kindersley:Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (b).67 Paul Appleyard. Bovington Tank Museum. Massimo Foti. 68-69 Bovington Tank Museum. 70 Dorling Kindersley:Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (cl).Thomas Quine: (tr).70-71 Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum.72 Dorling Kindersley:Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (cra, cl, br).Dreamstime.com:Ryzhov Sergey (cla).73 Dorling Kindersley:Steve Lamonby, The War and Peace Show (cb); Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (ca, br).74 Alamy Stock Photo:Michael Cremin (tl).75 Bovington Tank Museum. 78-79 Getty Images:Planet News Archive.80 Bovington Tank Museum. 85 Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (cl).86 Getty Images:Paul Popper / Popperfoto (tl).90-91 Bovington Tank Museum. 92 Bovington Tank Museum. 93 Bovington Tank Museum. Dorling Kindersley:Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (ca).94 Paul Appleyard. Bovington Tank Museum. 95 Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (t, b); Gary Ombler, I. Galliers, The War and Peace Show (cl).Alf van Beem:(cr).96 Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (t).Dreamstime.com:Sergey Zavyalov (cl).97 123RF.com:Vitali Burlakou (br); Yí Yuán Xînjû (cb).Alamy Stock Photo: Alexander Blinov (tr). Dreamstime.com:Ryzhov Sergey (cla).98 Bovington Tank Museum. 102 Bovington Tank Museum: (c).Getty Images:Serge Plantureux (bl); SVF2 (tl); TASS (cr).103 Alamy Stock Photo:C. and M. History Pictures (cla); Zoonar GmbH (ca).Getty Images:Sovfoto (b).104105 Bovington Tank Museum. 106 Alamy Stock Photo:Martin Bennett (cr).Massimo Foti. Leo van Midden:(tl).107 Dorling Kindersley:Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (t).Massimo Foti. 108 Ryan Keene:(tr).Ministerstwo

Obrony Narodowej:(cr).109 Dorling Kindersley:Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (tl, c).Massimo Foti. 109-109 Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (b).110 Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (c).Dreamstime.com:Sergey Zavyalov (bc).111 Paul Appleyard. Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (b).Dreamstime.com:Viktor Onyshchenko (c).Landship Photography:(crb).112 Bovington Tank Museum. 113 Wikipedia:Yí Yuán Xînjû(tc).116 Bovington Tank Museum. 117 Paul Appleyard. Bovington Tank Museum. Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (cr).Imperial War Museum. 118 AF Fotografie. Paul Appleyard. Bovington Tank Museum. 119 Paul Appleyard. Narayan Sengupta. 120-121 Getty Images: Popperfoto.122 Alamy Stock Photo:NPC Collectiom (tr).Dorling Kindersley:Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (cl).122-123 Dorling Kindersley:Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (b).123 Paul Appleyard: (cb).Dorling Kindersley:Ted Bear, The War and Peace Show (tl).Dreamstime.com:Sever180 (br).124 Dorling Kindersley:Jez Marren, The War and Peace Show (cl).124-125 Dorling Kindersley:George Paice, The War and Peace Show.125 Dorling Kindersley:Gary Ombler, The War and Peace Show; Gary Ombler, The War and Peace Show (cr).128 Alamy Stock Photo:Penrodas Collection.129 Bridgeman Images:Private Collection (cl).Getty Images:Bettmann (cr).130 David Busfield:(tr).Dreamstime. com:Sergey Krivoruchko (bl).131 Paul Appleyard. Dorling Kindersley:Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (cl).Bron Pancema:(cr).132 Dorling Kindersley:Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (clb).Dreamstime. com:Yykkaa (br).Vitaly Kuzmin:(cr).TMA:(tr).133 Paul Appleyard. Wikipedia:Yí Yuán Xînjû(tc).134 Bovington Tank Museum. 138-139 AF Fotografie. 140 Image courtesy of General Dynamics Ordnance and Tactical Systems:(tl).Getty Images:Taro Yamasaki (bl).141 Alamy Stock Photo:XM Collection (b).Image courtesy of General Dynamics Ordnance and Tactical Systems. Ministry of Defence Picture Library:(cla).142 Bovington Tank Museum. 146 Bovington Tank Museum. iStockphoto. com:DaveAlan (cl).146-147 Paul Appleyard. 147 Bovington Tank Museum. Dorling Kindersley:Gary

Ombler / The Tank Museum (tr); Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (cl); Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (cr). 148 Ryan Keene. 149 Dorling Kindersley:Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (b).Ryan Keene. 154 Alamy Stock Photo:Panzermeister (tc).DM brothers:(cl).Massimo Foti. Wikipedia:PD-Self / Los688 / Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (bl).155 Alamy Stock Photo: Panzermeister (tr).Paul Appleyard. Vinayak Hedge:(cr).156 Alamy Stock Photo:CNP Collection (cla).Massimo Foti. Wikipedia:Max Smith (cl).157 Bovington Tank Museum. TMA. Wikipedia:Bukvoed (br).158 Paul Appleyard. Daniel de Cristo:(tr).William Morris: (cr).158-159 Dorling Kindersley: Nick Hurt, Tanks, Trucks and Firepower Show.159 Alamy Stock Photo: Transcol (cla).Vitaly Kuzmin. 160 Paul Appleyard. 161 Alamy Stock Photo:Universal Images Group North America LLC / DeAgostini (cr).Massimo Foti. Getty Images:William F. Campbell / The LIFE Images Collection (cl).166-167 Bridgeman Images:Everett Collection.168 Paul Appleyard. Bovington Tank Museum. 169 Alamy Stock Photo:NPC Collection (tr).Dorling Kindersley:Richard Morris, Tanks, Trucks and Firepower Show (cr).Massimo Foti. 170 Marty4650:(cla).Reaxel 270862:(cl).Toadman’s Tank Pictures:Chris Hughes (bl).171 Alamy Stock Photo:CPC Collection (tl); PAF (c).Paul Appleyard. 172 Paul Appleyard. Dorling Kindersley:Gary Ombler / The Combined Military Services Museum (CMSM).Massimo Foti. 173 Alamy Stock Photo:CPC Collection (ca).Jim Maurer:(t). Wikipedia:Chamal Pathirana (br).174-175 Alamy Stock Photo:Dino Fracchia.176 Alamy Stock Photo:Iuliia Mashkova (br); Zoonar GmbH (c).177 Alamy Stock Photo:PAF (tr); pzAxe (br).Massimo Foti:(tl).Nederlands Instituut voor Militaire Historie:(cr).178 Alamy Stock Photo:dpa picture alliance archive / Carl Schulze (tr).Vitaly Kuzmin. 179 Alamy Stock Photo:Hideo Kurihara (tr); Alexey Zarubin (cl).Vitaly Kuzmin. 180 Alamy Stock Photo:Zoonar GmbH (clb).181 123RF.com:Mikhail Mandrygin (tl).Bovington Tank Museum. Dreamstime. com:Sever180 (br).RM Sothebys:(bl).182 Alamy Stock Photo:Grobler du Preez (cl).Jose Luis Bermudez de Castro:(cr).Raul Naranjo:(bc).Dirk Vorderstrasse: (cla).183 Army Recognition Group:(bl).Dorling Kindersley: Bruce Orme, Tanks, Trucks and Firepower Show (cl).Getty

256 . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Images:Federico Parra / Stringer (crb).184-185 Getty Images:Patrick Baz.186 Paul Appleyard. Massimo Foti. 187 Bovington Tank Museum. Dorling Kindersley:Gary Ombler, The War and Peace Show (crb).188 Dorling Kindersley:Andrew Baker, The War and Peace Show (cla); Brian Piper, Tanks, Trucks and Firepower Show (tr); Gary Ombler, Tanks, Trucks and Firepower Show (cr); Mick Browning, Tanks, Trucks and Firepower Show (clb); Gary Ombler, Tanks Trucks and Firepower Show (bl).189 Alamy Stock Photo:Ian Marlow (cra).Dorling Kindersley:Andrew Baker, Tanks, Trucks and Firepower Show (cla).Raul Naranjo. 190-191 Getty Images:Romeo Gacad.192 Bovington Tank Museum. 197 Getty Images:Shane Cuomo / AFP (cr).198 Alamy Stock Photo:Stocktrek Images, Inc..199 Getty Images:David Silverman (cl).200 Bovington Tank Museum. The Dunsfold Collection:(cl).Imperial War Museum:(tr).201 Alamy Stock Photo:Grobler du Preez (tr); Grobler du Preez (b).Witham Specialist Vehicles Ltd:Ministry of Defence, UK (tl).202 Alamy Stock Photo:CPC Collection (br).Courtesy of U.S. Army:(tr).203 Alamy Stock Photo:Sueddeutsche Zeitung Photo (tl).Getty Images: Stocktrek Images (cr).Ministry of Defence Picture Library:© Crown Copyright 2013 / Photographer: Cpl Si Longworth RLC (tr, br).204 akgimages:Africa Media Online / South Photos / John Liebenberg (tl).205 Christo R. Wolmarans:(br).208-209 Alamy Stock Photo:epa european pressphoto agency b.v..210 Alamy Stock Photo:Dino Fracchia (br).Thomas Tutchek: (clb).Wikipedia:Jorchr (c).211 Alamy Stock Photo:ITAR-TASS Photo

Agency (clb).Bovington Tank Museum. Zachi Evenor:MathKnight (cra).Katzennase:(cl).Ministry of Defence Picture Library:© Crown Copyright / Andrew Linnett (br).212 Alamy Stock Photo:Dino Fracchia (clb); Hideo Kurihara (cr).Michael J Barritt:(tr).Kjetil Ree:(cl).213 Alamy Stock Photo:LOU Collection (tr); Universal Images Group North America LLC / DeAgostini (cl).Wikipedia:Outisnn (b).214 Alamy Stock Photo:Reuters / Morris Mac Matzen (tr); Stocktrek Images, Inc. (bl).Wikipedia:Ex13 (cla).214-215 Wikipedia:Selvejp (bc).215 123RF.com:Jordan Tan (br).Alamy Stock Photo:Reuters / Fabian Bimmer (tl). Wikipedia:Kaminski (cr).216-217 Getty Images:Chung Sung-Jun. 218 Image courtesy of General Dynamics Ordnance and Tactical Systems. Wikipedia:Megapixie (cl).219 Dreamstime.com:Oleg Doroshin (tc).Vitaly Kuzmin. PIBWL:(cl).Wikipedia:Kaminski (cr).220 Combat Camera Europe:(c).Getty Images:Aamir Qureshi / Stringer (br). Wikipedia:Max Smith (tr).221 Alamy Stock Photo:Xinhua (cl).Zachi Evenor. Otokar:(br). Wikipedia:PD-Self (cr).222 Alamy Stock Photo:RGB Ventures / Superstock (tl).USAASC:photo by SGT Richard Wrigley, 2nd Armored Brigade Combat Team, 3rd Infantry Division Public Affairs (c).222-223 USAASC:(c).223 Image courtesy of General Dynamics Ordnance and Tactical Systems. 224-225 Fort Benning, GA:John D. Helms.226 BAE Systems Land:(cra).Getty Images:Bloomberg (tl); Bloomberg (bl).227 BAE Systems Land. 228-229 Getty Images:Sergei Bobylev.237

Bovington Tank Museum. Dorling Kindersley:Gary Ombler / Courtesy of the Royal Artillery Historical Trust (br); Gary Ombler / The Combined Military Services Museum (CMSM) (tl).238 Dorling Kindersley:Gary Ombler / The Tank Museum (clb).Zachi Evenor:(bl).239 OBRUM:(br).240 Dorling Kindersley:Second Guards Rifles Division / Gary Ombler (bc). 241 Bovington Tank Museum. 242 Dorling Kindersley:Gary Ombler / Stuart Beeny (cla); Gary Ombler / Vietnam Rolling Thunder (crb); Gary Ombler / Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford (clb); Gary Ombler / The Combined Military Services Museum (CMSM) (ca); Gary Ombler / Board of Trustees of the Royal Armouries (cl).243 Daniel de Cristo:(cr).Dorling Kindersley: Gary Ombler, Tanks, Trucks and Firepower Show (b) Wikipedia Creative Commons images: https://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/legalcode All other images © Dorling Kindersley For further information see: www.dkimages.com

The publisher would like to thank the following people for their help in making the book: Additional writing: Roger Ford Additional fact checking: Bruce Newsome, PhD Design and photoshoot assistance: Saffron Stocker Translation and photoshoot assistance: Sonia Charbonnier

Editorial assistance: Kathryn Hennessy, Allie Collins Index: Margaret McCormack The publisher would like to thank the following museums, organizations, and inidividuals for their generosity in allowing us to photograph their vehicles: Andrew Baker Gordon McKenna John Sanderson Chris Till Norfolk Tank Museum: Stephen MacHaye

Musée des Blindés, Saumur: Lieutenant-colonel Pierre Garnier de Labareyre, Adjudant-chef Arnaud Pompougnac

Armoured Testing and Development Unit (ATDU), Bovington: Staff Sergeant Dave Lincoln and team

The Tank Museum The Tank Museum holds the biggest and best collection of tanks and military vehicles from around the world. Located in Bovington, Dorset, the home of British tank training since the First World War, the museum continues to be involved in tank crew training. The Tank Museum Bovington Dorset, UK BH20 6JG www.tankmuseum.org [emailprotected]